The history and value of face masks.

In the human population, social contacts are a key for transmission of bacteria and viruses. The use of face masks seems to be critical to prevent the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 for the period, in which therapeutic interventions are lacking. In this review, we describe the history of masks from the middle age to modern times.

Use by the Russian Army of protective means against German chemical weapon applied during the First World War.

The first can be considered the simplest mask gauze or cotton-gauze impregnated with sodium hyposufite, which pressed to his face and breathed through it (i. e. <> gas mask, based on the principle of chemical neutralization of toxic substances). The most successful type of domestic wet gas mask is considered to be a gas mask constructed. by N. T.Prokofev with hermetically inserted glasses of plain glass. Using by Germany all new toxic substances required continuous improvement of gas masks and the use of not chemical, but physical principle of neutralization, based on the non-specific binding molecules toxic agent. Creation in Russia really acting dry gas mask associated with the name of the outstanding scientist. Zelinsky, first proposed, to use as activated carbon adsorbent. Engineer Petrograd factory < E.L.Kummant developed rubber helmet with goggles, do not require special mounting head and reliably protects both respiratory tract and eyes from exposure to toxic substances. The principle of the device mask Zelinsky-Kummant - canister with activated charcoal (and various additives) and a rubber facemask-is the basis of all modern designs masks.

Respiratory protection.

Respiratory protection is used as a method of protecting individuals from inhaling harmful airborne contaminants and in some cases to supply them with breathable air in oxygen-deficient environments. This article focuses on the use and types of personal respiratory protection (respirators) worn by individuals at workplaces where airborne hazardous contaminants may exist. Respirators are increasingly also being used in nonindustrial settings such as health care facilities, as concerns regarding infectious epidemics and terrorist threats grow. Pulmonologists and other clinicians should understand fundamental issues regarding respiratory protection against airborne contaminants and the use of respirators.

[First chemical mass attack in history of wars, Bolimów, January 31, 1915]. / Pierwszy masowy atak chemiczny w historii wojen Bolimów, 31 stycznia 1915 R.

World War I was the conflict, during which it was first used chemical warfare on a massive scale. The earliest chemical attack occurred on the Western Front in October 1914 in Neuve Chapelle, but its effects were so minimal that the Allies learned about it only after the war from German documents. The attack in the area Bolimow, made by the Germans against the Russian army with artillery shells containing gas T (xylyl and benzyl bromides), was therefore the first attack on a massive scale recorded on the victim side. The attack, which occurred after it made it possible to obtain some tactical success, but without a strategic breakthrough. Some of the later German attacks on the eastern front where chlorine was used proved to be more effective, but despite the many victims there was not any major strategic success achieved. The Russians did not take attempts to use chemical weapons in the First World War.

Government gas vans and school gas chambers: preparedness and paranoia in Britain, 1936-1941.

In 1936 the Air Raid Precautions department of the British Home Office instigated a training programme in which members of the public, including school students, were systematically exposed to tear gas. Based around fixed and mobile gas chambers, this training aimed to educate the public in the value and efficacy of their gas masks. Drawing on documentary and oral historical sources, this paper examines the discrepancies between the stated form and aims of these tests, and their practical applications, including some excessively brutal training practices. In the last part of the paper I consider these variations in the context of both the gas panic and the moral panic about children's behaviour in wartime.

History of chemical and biological warfare agents.

Chemical and biological warfare agents constitute a low-probability, but high-impact risk both to the military and to the civilian population. The use of hazardous materials of chemical or biological origin as weapons and for homicide has been documented since ancient times. The first use of chemicals in terms of weapons of mass destruction goes back to World War I, when on April 22, 1915 large amounts of chlorine were released by German military forces at Ypres, Belgium. Until around the 1970s of the 20th century, the awareness of the threat by chemical and biological agents had been mainly confined to the military sector. In the following time, the development of increasing range delivery systems by chemical and biological agents possessors sensitised public attention to the threat emanating from these agents. Their proliferation to the terrorists field during the 1990s with the expanding scale and globalisation of terrorist attacks suggested that these agents are becoming an increasing threat to the whole world community. The following article gives a condensed overview on the history of use and development of the more prominent chemical and biological warfare agents.

The role of biological monitoring in the health management of lead-exposed workers.

In 1967, the problem of occupational lead exposure came to public attention in Korea. Since then, regular progress has been made in lowering workplace lead exposures, instituting new workplace controls, and implementing health examinations of exposed workers. Serious lead poisoning episodes led to the introduction of biological monitoring programs on a voluntary basis in high lead exposure facilities in Korea. Occupational health services for lead workers in Korea during the last 10 years could be categorized into three phases. During the first phase (1988-1993), effort was directed at increasing awareness among workers concerning the hazards of lead exposure, biological monitoring was commenced with zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP), and a respiratory protection program was introduced. During the second phase (1994-1996), a computerized health management system of lead workers was developed, blood lead measurement was added for biological monitoring, and engineering controls were introduced in the workplace to lower air lead levels to comply with air lead regulations. Finally, during the third phase (1997-present), bone lead measurement by X-ray fluorescence was introduced to evaluate total body lead burden. During the period 1988-1998, air lead levels have remained generally steady and above the permissible exposure level (PEL), but ZPP and blood lead levels have shown a steady decline. It was discovered that in a developing country like Korea, which cannot introduce engineering controls quickly to protect lead workers, biological monitoring was very useful in identifying and lowering excess lead absorption. In the future, as average exposure duration continues to rise, bone lead measurement may be recommended to adequately protect the long-term health of lead workers.