Discolored urine in sheep and goats: Clinical, etiological, hematobiochemical, sonographic and postmortem findings.

Background: Bloody urine is classified in farm animals as hematuria, hemoglobinuria, and myoglobinuria. In small ruminants, discolored urine is reported due to several etiologies which is sometimes fatal. Of these causes are babesiosis, bacillary hemoglobinuria, copper toxicity, and hypophosphatemia. Aim: This study was designed to investigate the clinical, etiological, hematobiochemical, ultrasonographic, and pathological findings in rams and bucks with red urine syndrome. Methods: Eighteen male animals (nine rams and nine bucks) of 6 months to 3 years were examined. Parallel, 10 healthy controls were used. They were admitted due to red urine, voiding of only urine drops, straining during the act of urination, grunting during urination, ventral abdominal edema, and abdominal distension. The duration of the disease ranged from 2 to 30 days. A history of chronic copper toxicosis was informed in two bucks and a ram. Two blood samples were collected from diseased as well as from controls in EDTA tubes (for complete blood count testing) and in plain tubes (for serum collection). Results: Hematuria was found in 11 animals (seven bucks and four rams) while hemoglobinuria was detected in seven animals (five bucks and two rams). Sonographic findings in diseased animals included ruptured urinary bladder in 3, ruptured urethra in 5, penile calculi, uroperitoneum in 6, distended urinary bladder in 7, hydronephrosis in 5, echogenic deposits in the bladder in 3, and ventral urine accumulation in four animals. Laboratory evaluation of a Geimsa-stained blood smear confirmed the infection with Babesia in three bucks and a ram. Hemolytic anemia was marked in two bucks and a ram due to chronic copper toxicity. Biochemical abnormalities included hypoalbuminemia, hyperglobulinemia, increased blood urea nitrogen and creatinine concentration, and hyperglycemia. Postmortem examination was carried out on six animals (four rams and two bucks). Conclusion: Discolored urine in rams and bucks in this study resulted from hematuria due to urinary calculi and pelvic abscessation or from hemoglobinuria due to Babesia infection or due to copper toxicity. Hemolytic anemia was the outstanding hematological finding and hypoalbuminemia, hyperglobulinemia, increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine, and hyperglycemia were the characteristic biochemical findings. Sonography of the urinary tract was very helpful in assessing the renal parenchyma, urinary bladder, and abdominal cavity for the verification of urolithiasis, hydronephrosis, intact or ruptured urinary bladder, uroperitoneum, and perforated urethra.

Risk Factors Associated with the Alpine Multispecies Farming System in the Eradication of CAEV in South Tyrol, Italy.

South Tyrol has implemented, in 2007, a mandatory eradication program against Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis Virus (CAEV), a virus known to cause economic losses related to decreases in milk production and milk quality in goats, along with poor animal welfare and premature death. After a great initial decrease in the seroprevalence, the program has reached a tailing phase with scattered positivities. Potential risk factors associated with the multispecies farming system, a traditional approach in South Tyrol, are evaluated in this study, in order to better understand some of the potential causes leading to the tailing phenomenon. A statistically significant number of farms was selected for the present study, based on the risk factors evaluated. Even though there is no statistically significant association between the practices evaluated and the incidence of infection, the authors believe that it is important to highlight potential risks that may threaten the outcome of this eradication program.

Classical scrapie in small ruminants is caused by at least four different prion strains.

The diversity of goat scrapie strains in Europe has recently been studied using bioassays in a wide collection of rodent models, resulting in the classification of classical scrapie into four different categories. However, the sole use of the first passage does not lead to isolate adaptation and identification of the strains involved and might therefore lead to misclassification of some scrapie isolates. Therefore, this work reports the complete transmission study of a wide collection of goat transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) isolates by intracranial inoculation in two transgenic mouse lines overexpressing either small ruminant (TgGoat-ARQ) or bovine (TgBov) PrPC. To compare scrapie strains in sheep and goats, sheep scrapie isolates from different European countries were also included in the study. Once the species barrier phenomenon was overcome, an accurate classification of the isolates was attained. Thus, the use of just two rodent models allowed us to fully differentiate at least four different classical scrapie strains in small ruminants and to identify isolates containing mixtures of strains. This work reinforces the idea that classical scrapie in small ruminants is a prion disease caused by multiple different prion strains and not by a single strain, as is the case for epidemic classical bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE-C). In addition, the clear dissimilarity between the different scrapie strains and BSE-C does not support the idea that classical scrapie is the origin of epidemic BSE-C.

Protothecosis and chlorellosis in sheep and goats: a review.

Protothecosis and chlorellosis are sporadic algal diseases that can affect small ruminants. In goats, protothecosis is primarily associated with lesions in the nose and should be included in the differential diagnosis of causes of rhinitis. In sheep, chlorellosis causes typical green granulomatous lesions in various organs. Outbreaks of chlorellosis have been reported in sheep consuming stagnant water, grass from sewage-contaminated areas, and pastures watered by irrigation canals or by effluents from poultry-processing plants. Prototheca and Chlorella are widespread in the environment, and environmental and climatic changes promoted by anthropogenic activities may have increased the frequency of diseases produced by them. The diagnosis of these diseases must be based on gross, microscopic, and ultrastructural lesions, coupled with detection of the agent by immunohistochemical-, molecular-, and/or culture-based methods.

The influence of selenium deficiency on chosen biochemical parameters and histopathological changes in muscles of goat kids.

The research was conducted on 40 young alpine goats (kids) divided into two groups. First group consisted of 20 kids demonstrating clinical signs of muscular dystrophy. Second group was a control and consisted of 20 animals that received intramuscular injection (2ml per animal) of vitamin E and selenium preparation containing in 1ml 50 mg of tocopherol acetate, 0.5mg of sodium selenite and solvent on 2nd day of life. The kids were clinically examined and blood for laboratory analyses was sampled three times from day 5 of their life in 10 day intervals. In addition, six 24 days old kids demonstrating clinical signs of muscular dystrophy and six control kids were subjected to biceps femoris biopsy. Serum total protein, glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol as well as AST, CK and LDH were determined in all the animals. In addition, the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was determined in whole blood and serum concentrations of selenium and vitamin E were deter-mined in 6 kids from each group. Total lactate dehydrogenase activity and its separation into isoenzymatic fractions were determined in the collected biopsy material. The muscle samples collected were additionally subjected to histopathological examination consisting of HE staining and HBFP staining to detect necrotic muscle fibers. Symptoms of muscular dystrophy began to appear in the first group between 17 and 23 days of age and included tremors of the limbs, poor posture, stilt gait and increased time of laying. The control animals did not show any symptoms of the disease during the experiment. Hypo-proteinemia, hypoglycemia, cholesterol reduction and elevated triglycerides level associated with lipolysis of adipose tissue have been found in the sick kids. A significant decrease in selenium, vitamin E and activity of glutathione peroxidase levels was observed in the kids with symptoms of muscular dystrophy. The activity of AST, CK and LDH was significantly higher in the animals with symptoms of the disease as well. Five isoenzymes were obtained in the electrophoretic separation of lactate dehydrogenase into isoenzymatic fractions in the muscle tissue. LDH4and LDH5 isoenzymes were dominating, and a significant increase in LDH5 fraction of the sick animals was also observed. Histopathological examination of muscle samples from sick animals revealed changes characteristic for the presence of Zenker necrosis.

Neurolathyrism in goat (Capra hircus) kid: Model development.

The present study was undertaken to develop an animal model to study neurolathyrism. For this purpose 24 goat (Capra hircus) kids (new born, 15 days old) were divided into four groups. Group I Control, Group II Low toxin (0.17 g% ß-ODAP containing grass pea), Group III high toxin (0.96 g% ß-ODAP containing grass pea) and Group IV high toxin (0.96 g% ß-ODAP containing grass pea flour (powder) fortified with 5 mg% pure ß-ODAP). The experiment was continued for 3 months. Clinical examination was carried out weekly. Muscle conduction velocity (MCV), nerve conduction velocity (NCV), blood and urinary ß-ODAP, nitrite in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination were performed by standard methods. Clinical examination showed neurolathyrism symptoms in three kids. The abnormal MCV and NCV were observed in all the experimental animals. Blood nitrite, blood and urine ß-ODAP levels were significantly increased in experimental groups. Three kids were affected with neurolathyrism due to consumption of grass pea irrespective of its ß-ODAP content and kid may serve as a neurolathyrism model.

Failure of diplodiatoxin to induce diplodiosis in juvenile goats.

Diplodiosis is an important neuromycotoxicosis of ruminants in South Africa when grazing on harvested maize fields in winter. It is believed to be caused by mycotoxin(s) synthesised by Stenocarpella (Diplodia) maydis. Although several metabolites have been isolated from S. maydis culture material, none of these have been administered to ruminants to reproduce the disease. The objectives of this study were to isolate diplodiatoxin and to administer it to juvenile goats. Diplodiatoxin, considered as a major metabolite, was purified from S. maydis-infected maize cultures (Coligny 2007 isolate). Following intravenous administration of 2 mg and 4 mg diplodiatoxin/kg body weight for five consecutive days to two juvenile goats, no clinical signs reminiscent of diplodiosis were observed. Based on previous experimental results and if diplodiatoxin was the causative compound, the dosage regimen employed was seemingly appropriate to induce diplodiosis. In addition, intraruminal administration of 2 mg/kg diplodiatoxin to one goat for three consecutive days also did not induce clinical signs. It appears as if diplodiatoxin alone is not the causative compound. Other metabolites and/or mixtures of diplodiatoxin and other mycotoxins, when available in sufficient quantities, should also be evaluated.

Hematological prediction study of peritonitis following laparotomy in goats.

Surgical trauma to the abdominal wall and peritoneum during celiotomy is expected to cause postoperative inflammation. However, complications after abdominal surgery are hardly detected in the early stage. Hematological analysis of blood has been considered beneficial in disease diagnosis and prognosis. This study aimed to evaluate the hematological parameters predicting peritonitis in goats and to determine the post-surgery day that hematology is significant. Six apparently healthy West African Dwarf goats were included in this study. After 2 weeks of acclimatization, blood samples were obtained daily for 3 days for hematological analyses, which served as the baseline data. The right flanks of the animals were aseptically prepared routinely for exploratory laparotomy. Restraint and anesthesia were achieved using xylazine and lignocaine using an inverted "L" block technique. Laparotomy was performed, and the incision was left for 20 min and then closed routinely. Blood samples were collected for hemogram 24 hr postoperatively and daily for 7 days. Based on the post-surgery hematology results, relative neutrophil (P=0.015) and lymphocyte (P=0.006) counts significantly increased and decreased on day 5 respectively. Significant differences were also observed for red blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration, and packed cell volume on days 5, 6, and 7 respectively. It could therefore be concluded that the diagnostic result for hematology post-laparotomy can be obtained on the fifth and sixth day.

Milk yield, milk composition, and milk metabolomics of dairy goats intramammary-challenged with lipopolysaccharide under heat stress conditions.

Heat stress and mastitis are major economic issues in dairy production. The objective was to test whether goat's mammary gland immune response to E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) could be conditioned by heat stress (HS). Changes in milk composition and milk metabolomics were evaluated after the administration of LPS in mammary glands of dairy goats under thermal-neutral (TN; n = 4; 15 to 20 °C; 40 to 45% humidity) or HS (n = 4; 35 °C day, 28 °C night; 40% humidity) conditions. Milk metabolomics were evaluated using 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and multivariate analyses were carried out. Heat stress reduced feed intake and milk yield by 28 and 21%, respectively. Mammary treatment with LPS resulted in febrile response that was detectable in TN goats, but was masked by elevated body temperature due to heat load in HS goats. Additionally, LPS increased milk protein and decreased milk lactose, with more marked changes in HS goats. The recruitment of somatic cells in milk after LPS treatment was delayed by HS. Milk metabolomics revealed that citrate increased by HS, whereas choline, phosphocholine, N-acetylcarbohydrates, lactate, and ß-hydroxybutyrate could be considered as putative markers of inflammation with different pattern according to the ambient temperature (i.e. TN vs. HS). In conclusion, changes in milk somatic cells and milk metabolomics indicated that heat stress affected the mammary immune response to simulated infection, which could make dairy animals more vulnerable to mastitis.

Prevalence of and risk factors for intravenous catheter infection in hospitalized cattle, goats, and sheep.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous catheter (IVC) use in hospitalized ruminants is a common procedure. Limited information is available describing complications associated with IVCs. HYPOTHESES: Prevalence of IVC infections in hospitalized ruminants is >50%. Intravenous catheters maintained for >5 days are more likely to be infected than those maintained for <5 days. Intravenous catheters placed non-aseptically have a higher risk for infection than those placed aseptically. ANIMALS: Thirty-four cattle, 39 goats, and 33 sheep were hospitalized in a university teaching hospital. METHODS: Prospective observational study. The IVCs from cattle, goats, and sheep admitted for medical and surgical procedures were randomly selected and submitted for bacteriological culture and susceptibility testing. RESULTS: Prevalence values (95% confidence interval) of infected catheters were 61.8 (45.5, 78.1), 51.3 (35.3, 66.7), and 42.4% (25.2, 58.8) in cattle, goats, and sheep, respectively. Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp was the most frequently isolated bacterium. Catheter type/placement technique was a significant (P = .03) predictor of IVC infection in goats but not in cattle (P = .65) and sheep (P = .47). Antibiotic use and reason for catheter placement were not significant predictors of IVC infection in all species. Catheters maintained for >4 days had a higher likelihood of being infected than those maintained for <4 days in all species. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Clinicians should consider replacing catheters maintained for >4 days to reduce IVC infection.

Clinical and pathological comparison of Astragalus lentiginosus and Ipomoea carnea poisoning in goats.

The indolizidine alkaloid swainsonine, found in some Astragalus and Oxytropis (i.e., locoweed) species, is a potent cellular glycosidase inhibitor that often poisons livestock. Other toxic genera such as some Ipomoea species also contain swainsonine as well as calystegines which are similar polyhydroxy alkaloids. The toxicity of calystegines is poorly characterized; however, they are also potent glycoside inhibitors capable of intestinal and cellular glycoside dysfunction. The objective of this study was to directly compare A. lentiginosus and I. carnea poisoning in goats to better characterize the role of the calystegines. Three groups of four goats each were treated with ground alfalfa (control), I. carnea or A. lentiginosus to obtain daily doses of 0.0, 1.5, and 1.5 mg swainsonine/kg bw per day, respectively, for 45 days. Animals were observed daily and weekly body weights, serum enzyme activities, and serum swainsonine concentrations were determined. At day 45 all animals were euthanized and necropsied. Goats treated with A. lentiginosus and I. carnea developed clinical disease characterized by mild intention tremors and proprioceptive deficits. Goats treated with A. lentiginosus developed clinical disease sooner and with greater consistency. No differences in body weight, serum swainsonine concentrations and serum enzyme activity were observed between goats treated with A. lentiginosus and I. carnea. Additionally, there were no differences in the microscopic and histochemical studies of the visceral and neurologic lesions observed between goats treated with A. lentiginosus and I. carnea. These findings suggest that I. carnea-induced clinical signs and lesions are due to swainsonine and that calystegines contribute little or nothing to toxicity in goats in the presence of swainsonine.

Meconium aspiration pneumonia and otitis media in two goat kids.

We report meconium aspiration in 2 sibling goat kids, and characterize the expected lesions of aspiration pneumonia in conjunction with the rare lesion of otitis media. Grossly, the lungs were multifocally consolidated, and there was yellow-green exudate within the middle ear. Histologically, the lung was characterized by pyogranulomatous pneumonia and foreign-body reaction around aspirated debris. Within the lumen of the middle ear, aspirated squamous cells, keratin, meconium debris, and neutrophils, without evidence of bacteria, were accompanied by a subepithelial accumulation of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and fewer macrophages. This is an especially rare phenomenon, which is thought to result from transport of meconium from the oropharynx through the auditory tube (Eustachian tube) to the middle ear.

First report on seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats in North Lebanon.

INTRODUCTION: Toxoplasmosis is of dual importance in both public and veterinary health due to the respective risk of transplacental transmission in primo-infected pregnant women and economic losses caused by abortions in mammals. One of the main routes of Toxoplasma gondii transmission to humans is the consumption of raw or undercooked meats containing parasitic cysts. Here, we performed the first epidemiological study to determine the seroprevalence and the risk factors of toxoplasmosis in livestock in Lebanon. METHODOLOGY: Using a modified agglutination test with a cut-off of 1:40, we tested the positivity rate of Immunoglobulin G antibodies in the sera of 100 sheep and 80 goats collected from 18 different livestock farms located in North Lebanon between March and June 2018. RESULTS: Anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies were detected in 42% of sheep and 34% of goats. Adults (> 1 year) were significantly more infected by T. gondii than the lambs (< 1 year) in both species (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicated that food animals are highly exposed to T. gondii in Lebanon and could be potentially a major risk factor of T. gondii infection to humans. Consequently, national prophylactic strategies should be implemented to control and to prevent T. gondii transmission between animals and humans.

High seroprevalence of pathogenic Yersinia spp. in sheep and goats across nine government farms in the Pakistani Punjab.

INTRODUCTION: Seroprevalence of Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis infections in animals and humans is not established in Pakistan. There are only a few reports on the prevalence of pathogenic Yersinia spp. and infections in small ruminants, however, the role of sheep and goats in the transmission of pathogenic Yersinia remains unclear. METHODOLOGY: A primary survey investigated the presence of anti-Yersinia antibodies among a small population of ruminants detected by recombinant antigen targets in nine government farms dispersed throughout the Punjab province of Pakistan. RESULTS: Antibodies specific for Y. enterocolitica were detected in 7/9 sheep flocks and in 4/4 goat flocks. Antibodies specific for Y. pseudotuberculosis were detected in 4/9 sheep flocks. Two sheep flocks revealed the presence of both Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis specific antibodies. CONCLUSION: Due to the high number of the population involved in raising small ruminants the risk to veterinary and public health must be rapidly determined.

Neurological syndrome in goats associated with Ipomoea trifida and Ipomoea carnea containing calystegines.

A disease characterized by ataxia, tremors and nystagmus had been observed in goats in Nicaragua. The main histologic lesions were loss and neuronal vacuolation of Purkinje cells and Wallerian-like degeneration mainly in the cerebellum, suggesting a glycoprotein storage disease. Ipomoea carnea and Ipomoea trifida found in the paddocks were negative for swainsonine, but contained calystegines at 0.02% and 0.06% suggesting that the disease was caused by these substances, which are competitive inhibitors of ß-glucosidase and α-galactosidase activities.

Fall panicum ( Panicum dichotomiflorum) toxicosis in three juvenile goats.

Consumption of certain grasses belonging to the genus Panicum has been found to cause hepatogenous photosensitization and crystal-associated cholangiohepatopathy in small ruminants, and liver disease in horses, in many areas of the world. We describe herein the clinical findings, microscopic lesions, and steroidal saponin analysis of Panicum dichotomiflorum associated with fatal toxicosis in 3 juvenile goats in Nebraska. The disease presentation in our case was fulminant, with anorexia, marked icterus, and death for all affected animals in less than a week. Photosensitization was not observed. The microscopic lesions consisted of severe crystal-associated cholangiohepatopathy and nephropathy, with aggregates of clear or refractile and birefringent, acicular crystals present within bile ducts, macrophages, hepatocytes, and renal tubules. High-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry of the grass samples demonstrated that dichotomin was the major steroidal saponin present (0.89 µg/mg); protodioscin was also present (0.059 µg/mg). The findings were consistent with ingestion of steroidal saponins, and P. dichotomiflorum was identified as the predominant forage available.

Estimating the impact on food and edible materials of changing scrapie control measures: The scrapie control model.

Multiple controls established during the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic were not solely applied to BSE in cattle, but were implemented for scrapie in sheep and goats due to concerns over the occurrence of BSE in sheep. In the absence of BSE in sheep being observed, control measures for prion diseases are now being evaluated to ensure they remain proportionate to risk. This risk assessment, aims to estimate, by use of stochastic simulation, the impact of reducing controls for Specified Risk Materials (SRM) from sheep at abattoir. Three scenarios have been included: 1) current list of SRM; 2) brain and spinal cord of adult sheep; and 3) the brain of adult sheep. Results indicate the total amount of infectivity passing through British abattoirs is highest for atypical scrapie with nearly 3,500,000 Ovine Oral (OO) ID50 per year. The majority of this infectivity enters Category 1 waste for incineration, with only 13,000 OO ID50 per year within edible products. Under Scenario 2, an additional 4000 OO ID50 per year would be classified as edible products from the lifting of restrictions on the distal ileum of adult sheep. However, if SRM removal was limited to brain, an additional 110,000 OO ID50 per year would be permitted into edible products with the lifting of restrictions on the spinal cord of adult sheep. For classical scrapie, there is a mean estimate of infectivity of 30,000 OO ID50 per year at abattoir. This is lower than for atypical scrapie due to the lower occurrence of this disease in Great Britain. However, more infectivity is destined to reach the food chain as the disease is peripherally distributed in the carcase. The highest contributor to the total amount of infectivity consumed per year is the intestines (duodenum and jejunum). If SRM removal is limited to the brain and spinal cord of sheep over 12 months of age, there is an approximate mean increase from 19,000 to 21,000 OO ID50 per year diverted to edible products. If the SRM list is restricted to brain only, this increases to over 23,000 OO ID50 per year. For the potential of sheep-BSE, there is a very low estimate of 29 OO ID50 per year in total from carcases entering abattoir, due to the potential very rare occurrence of this disease. Given changes in SRM regulations there is a change of an additional 4 OO ID50 per year being diverted to edible products.

Sodium Butyrate Mitigates iE-DAP Induced Inflammation Caused by High-Concentrate Feeding in Liver of Dairy Goats.

The aim of this study is to explore the impact of sodium butyrate on d-glutamyl- meso-diaminopimelic acid (iE-DAP)-induced liver inflammation in dairy goats during subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) caused by high-concentrate feed. To achieve this aim, 12 lactating dairy goats were randomly divided into two groups: a high-concentrate feed group ( n = 6, concentrate/forage = 6:4) as the control group and a sodium butyrate (SB) with high-concentrate feed group ( n = 6, concentrate/forage = 6:4, with 1% SB by wt.) as the treatment group. A rumen pH below 5.6 lasted for at least 4 h/d due to long-term HC feeding. The concentration of iE-DAP was significantly lower (11.67 ± 3.85 µg/mL, and 7.74 ± 1.46 µg/mL, at the fourth h and sixth h of feeding, respectively) in the SB-treated group than that in the HC group (51.45 ± 5.71 µg/mL, and 18.31 ± 3.83 µg/mL, at the fourth h and sixth h of feeding, respectively). Meanwhile, SB significantly suppressed the mRNA expression of inflammatory genes (NOD1, RIPK2, TAK1, NF-κB/p65, ERK, JNK2, p38, IL-1ß, TNF-α, CCL5, CCL20, CXCL12, FOS, ß-defensin/LAP). Moreover, the protein expression of NOD1, p-IκBα, p-NF-κB/p-p65, p-ERK1/2, p-JNK, p-p38, and HDAC3 was significantly downregulated in the HC+SB group. In conclusion, iE-DAP-induced inflammation and liver disruption generated by the HC diet was mitigated by SB treatment.

An experimental model for calcium carbonate urolithiasis in goats.

BACKGROUND: Calcium carbonate is a common urolith type in small ruminants with no high-yield experimental model to evaluate animal susceptibility or preventative measure response. HYPOTHESIS: That novel plastic winged implants would allow accumulation and quantification of calcium carbonate calculus formation in goats on a high-calcium diet and identify individual variation between goats in the mass of calculi produced. ANIMALS: Eight nonpregnant 3- and 4-year-old Boer-cross does, weighing 22.3-39.5 kg, determined to be healthy based on physical examination, were used in these experiments. METHODS: Prospective cohort study for in vivo experimental model development. Implants were placed into the urinary bladder lumen in 8 goats over 2 evaluation periods. The alfalfa-based ration had a total ration Ca : P of 3.29 and 3.84 : 1, respectively. Urine was collected at 0, 28, 56, and 84 days in the 1st experiment; blood and urine at those timepoints in the 2nd experiment. For each evaluation period, the implants were removed 84 days after implantation and weighed. Accumulated calculi mass was calculated and compared between goats and was analyzed for composition. RESULTS: Implant retention was 100% and 86% in the 2 studies. All goats with retained implants accumulated calcium carbonate at a mean implant gain per day across studies ranging from 0.44 to 57.45 mg. Two goats accumulated (0.44-7.65 mg/day and 33.64 & 57.45 mg/day) significantly more urolith material than the cohort across both studies (P = .047). No routine analytes on blood or urine were found to be explanatory for the difference observed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: These findings form a basis for implant and diet selection for use in future studies of urolithiasis development and for studies regarding individual susceptibility to urolithiasis.

A cross-sectional study to identify a set of risk factors for caprine herpesvirus 1 infection.

BACKGROUND: Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) causes neonatal mortality and reproductive failure in goats. Despite its impact on herd reproductive performance, few studies have investigated the risk factors associated with CpHV-1 infection. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to identify potential herd- and host-level risk factors associated with CpHV-1 prevalence in a goat population with heterogeneous seropositivity for CpHV-1. RESULTS: Blood samples and individual data from 4542 goats were collected from 255 herds in Piedmont, Italy. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and serum neutralization tests were carried out to detect antibodies against CpHV-1. A mixed-effects model was applied to identify any statistical association between CpHV-1 seropositivity and a set of putative host-level and herd-level risk factors. A total of 630 samples tested were found positive by ELISA (prevalence = 13.9%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 12.9-14.9). Of the 255 tested herds, 85 were classified as positive for the presence of at least one gB-positive animal (herd prevalence 33.3%, 95% CI 27.5-39.2), with a within-herd prevalence between 0.7 and 100% (Q1 = 17.6%; median = 32.3%; Q3 = 50%) (Q = quartiles). The prevalence ratios showed a statistical association with the following risk factors: breeds other than Saanen, older age, larger herd size, meat and extensive herds, and co-existence of CAEV-infected animals. CONCLUSIONS: Results from this cross sectional study may help to elucidate the natural history of the infection and inform targeted strategies to control a disease with a potentially important impact on animal health and goat farming economy.