Single-case metanalysis of fat embolism syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Only one large series has been reported on fat embolism syndrome (FES), a condition caused by fat globules release into the circulation, primarily as consequence of bone fracture. Thus, more data on clinical features, therapies, and prognosis are needed. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study screened 1090 manuscripts in PubMed and Web of Science on cases of FES published from June 2010 to June 2020. The authors identified 124 studies and included in the pooled-analysis 135 patients (>14 years), plus one additional unpublished case managed in Tongji hospital. All had confirmed diagnosis of FES with complete clinical data. The median age at presentation was 39 years, and 82 (61.8%) were men. FES was predominantly associated with bone fractures (78, 57.4%), particularly femur fracture (59, 43.4%). The most common clinical finding at the onset was respiratory abnormalities in 34.6% of all clinical presentations. Therapies included respiratory supportive care in 127 (93.4%) patients, application of corticosteroids in 22 (16.2%) and anticoagulant in 5 (3.7%) cases. Overall mortality was 30.2% (N = 41), and logistic regression analysis showed that corticosteroid therapy was significantly associated with reduced mortality with an OR of 0.143 (95%CI 0.029-0.711), while age ≥ 65 years and non-orthopedic conditions were significantly associated with increased mortality with an OR of 4.816 (95%CI 1.638-14.160) and 4.785 (95%CI 1.019-22.474). CONCLUSIONS: FES has been associated with a larger mortality rate than previously observed, although publication bias can have led to overestimation of mortality. Finally, a potential protective effect of corticosteroid therapy has been suggested by the current analysis.

Safety Comparison of Abdominoplasty and Brazilian Butt Lift: What the Literature Tells Us.

BACKGROUND: Although abdominoplasty is a mainstay of the plastic surgeon, the safety of the Brazilian butt lift (BBL) has been questioned, effectively being prohibited in some countries. The central rationale for the safety concern over the BBL stems from a publication stating a mortality rate of one in 3000. The question remains: What is the real safety of these procedures? METHODS: Focusing on mortality, literature searches were performed for BBL and for abdominoplasty. The 2017 Aesthetic Surgery Education and Research Foundation survey data and publication were examined and analyzed. Additional data from the American Association for Accreditation of Ambulatory Surgical Facilities were obtained independently. RESULTS: Abdominoplasty and BBL appear to have similar safety based on mortality; however, the nature of their mortalities is different. Although most abdominoplasty deaths are secondary to deep venous thrombosis/pulmonary embolism-inherent circulatory thrombotic abnormality-BBL mortality is associated with iatrogenic pulmonary fat embolism. BBL mortality rates from more recent surveys on BBL safety demonstrate a mortality of one in 15,000. CONCLUSIONS: Although deep venous thrombosis/pulmonary embolism will always remain an abdominoplasty risk, intraoperative BBL pulmonary fat embolism has the potential to be reduced dramatically with a better understanding of dynamic anatomy, surgical instrumentation, and technique. The authors are now presented with a better lens with which to view a more accurate safety profile of BBL surgery, including its place among other commonly performed aesthetic procedures.

Cerebral fat embolism after traumatic bone fractures: a structured literature review and analysis of published case reports.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of cerebral fat embolism (CFE) ranges from 0.9-11%, with a mean mortality rate of around 10%. Although no univocal explanation has been identified for the resulting fat embolism syndrome (FES), two hypotheses are widely thought: the 'mechanical theory', and the 'chemical theory'. The present article provides a systematic review of published case reports of FES following a bone fracture. METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, Web of Science and Scopus to find any article related to FES. Inclusion criteria were: trauma patients; age ≥ 18 years; and the clinical diagnosis of CFE or FES. Studies were excluded if the bone fracture site was not specified. RESULTS: One hundred and seventy studies were included (268 cases). The male gender was most prominent (81.6% vs. 18.4%). The average age was 33 years (±18). The mean age for males (29 ± 14) was significantly lower than for females (51 ± 26) (p < 0.001). The femur was the most common fracture site (71% of cases). PFO was found in 12% of all cases. Univariate and multivariate regression analyses showed the male gender to be a risk factor for FES: RR 1.87 and 1.41, respectively (95%CI 1.27-2.48, p < 0.001; 95%CI 0.48-2.34, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: FES is most frequent in young men in the third decades of life following multiple leg fractures. FES may be more frequent after a burst fracture. The presence of PFO may be responsible for the acute presentation of cerebral embolisms, whereas FES is mostly delayed by 48-72 h.

Fat embolism syndrome: Experience from an Australian trauma centre.

BACKGROUND: Fat Embolism Syndrome (FES) is a rare condition where circulating fat emboli can lead to life threatening multisystem dysfunction. Diagnosis of FES occurs mainly by exclusion. The aim of this study was to describe the injury, event details, and factors associated with the diagnosis of FES following trauma presenting to a Level 1 Trauma Centre in Melbourne, Australia. METHODS: Medical records of all patients with a complication of FES between 2006 and 2018 were retrospectively reviewed. Demographics, injury factors, hospital event details, radiological procedures and length of stay were collected. RESULTS: Thirty six patients, with median age of 26 years (IQR 19, 42) and median Injury Severity Score (ISS) of 18.5 (IQR 10, 27) were diagnosed with FES. Other associated factors included male gender (86%) and having one or more long bone fractures (97%). Of the major FES diagnostic criteria, 94% of patients experienced hypoxia, 36% had mental status changes, whereas only 11% had petechiae. Computed Tomography Pulmonary Angiogram (CTPA) was performed on 19 patients (53%) with all being negative for pulmonary embolus. Most demonstrated ground glass opacity (58%), and FES was reported as the likely cause of patient presentation in 53% of cases. CONCLUSION: FES following trauma was rare, with its diagnosis based on clinical factors including long bone fracture and hypoxia, and the exclusion of other respiratory diagnoses. CTPA was frequently used since 2008 and further research is warranted to determine if this radiological procedure can assist with more definitive diagnosis of FES.

Woman with acute onset involuntary limb movements.

CLINICAL INTRODUCTION: An 88-year-old woman presented with acute onset of involuntary limb movements for one day. Two days prior she had fallen a suffered a left hip contusion but no head trauma. There was no fever or difficulty breathing. Her heart rate was 72 bpm with blood pressure of 109/68 mm Hg. Physical examination revealed restricted left hip motion due to pain and a sustained twisted posture of the upper extremity without paresis. Glasgow Coma Scale was 15, and there was no evidence of Kernig's or Brudzinski's sign. She underwent a hip X-ray and non-contrast CT scan (figures 1 and 2).emermed;36/7/415/F1F1F1Figure 1Anteroposterior X-radiograph of the hip.emermed;36/7/415/F2F2F2Figure 2A non-contrast brain CT. QUESTION: What is the most likely cause of the clinical presentation?Acute meningitisCerebral fat embolismHaemorrhagic strokeHypertensive encephalopathy For answer see page 2 For question see page 1.

Incidence of Seizures in Fat Embolism Syndrome Over a 10-Year Period: Analysis of the National Inpatient Sample Database.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Data regarding the incidence of seizures in patients diagnosed with fat embolism syndrome (FES) are lacking. We examined the incidence of seizures in patients with FES, and the impact of seizures on outcomes over a 10-year period. METHODS: Using the National Inpatient Sample data set we identified adults (age 18 y old or above) with a diagnosis of FES (ICD-9 958.1) between 2005 and 2014, and categorized them according to the presence or absence of seizures. We excluded patients with a history of epilepsy or traumatic brain injury RESULTS:: Of the 66,227,531 discharges, we identified 1888 patients (0.003%) with FES of which 53% were male and mean age of 56 (±57.45). Seizure or epilepsy rate in patients with FES was 2.86% (1.69% with seizures and 1.16% with epilepsy), as compared with 3.6% in all hospitalized patients without FES. The Charlson Comorbidity Index for all FES patients was 2.38 (±5.28) and was similar for those with and without seizures. Hospital length of stay was higher in patients with FES and seizures versus those without seizures (14.59 vs. 10.82 d, P=0.09). No statistically significant difference in mortality was observed between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of seizure and epilepsy in patients with FES is low when compared with rates in all hospitalized patients or in patients with other causes of acute neurological injury such as intracerebral hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and traumatic brain injury. Further studies are needed to provide recommendations for antiepileptic medication use in FES.

Fat Embolism and Fat Embolism Syndrome.

Fat embolism (FE) occurs frequently after trauma and during orthopaedic procedures involving manipulation of intramedullary contents. Classically characterized as a triad of pulmonary distress, neurologic symptoms, and petechial rash, the clinical entity of FE syndrome is much less common. Both mechanical and biochemical pathophysiologic theories have been proposed with contributions of vascular obstruction and the inflammatory response to embolized fat and trauma. Recent studies have described the relationship of embolized marrow fat with deep venous thrombosis and postsurgical cognitive decline, but without clear treatment strategies. Because treatment is primarily supportive, our focus must be on prevention. In trauma, early fracture stabilization decreases the rate of FE syndrome; however, questions remain regarding the effect of reaming and management of bilateral femur fractures. In arthroplasty, computer navigation and alternative cementation techniques decrease fat embolization, although the clinical implications of these techniques are currently unclear, illustrating the need for ongoing education and research with an aim toward prevention.

Gluteal Augmentation With Fat: Retrospective Safety Study and Literature Review.

BACKGROUND: Use of gluteal augmentation with fat increased by 3267% from 2002 to 2015, and the rate of death is highest compared with other aesthetic procedures: 1 in 3448 patients dies, compared with 1 in 55,000. OBJECTIVES: To retrospectively investigate patients who underwent this procedure at Oslo Plastic Surgery Clinic, to review international data to determine factors causing mortality, and to provide guidelines for safety. METHODS: Patient data were searched for reason for the procedure, assessment of patients, techniques performed, and safety measures used. In 60 cases, a vibration machine was used for fat harvesting. Review of the international literature, with special emphasis on fatal complications, was performed on Medline, Google Scholar, and PubMed. RESULTS: Mean patient age was 32 years. Mean amount of grafted fat was 422 mL (range, 210-850 mL). Sedation, local and tumescent anesthesia were used in all patients, with mobilization directly after surgery. Mean operation time was 89 minutes. Eighteen patients required a second surgery. Minor complications occurred in 8 patients. Average follow-up was 8 months. Ninety percent of patients were satisfied. Review of international literature showed that the main reason for death in 2015 was fat lung embolism related to muscular and submuscular grafting. CONCLUSIONS: Gluteal augmentation with fat is one of the most popular procedures, with an internationally high mortality rate. Patient safety is a priority, and preventive measures should improve safety because appropriate patient selection, avoiding muscular and submuscular grafting, avoiding infragluteal incision, moderate grafted volume, and direct postoperative mobilization are essential.

Expansion Vibration Lipofilling: A New Technique in Large-Volume Fat Transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Despite rapid growth, gluteal fat transplantation is an operation in search of science and a teachable technique. Long operating times, tedious syringe transfers, inability to shape the recipient site, and the risk of fat embolism all headline as impediments to clinical adoption of the procedure. Expansion vibration lipofilling is a syringe-free surgical strategy that is a logical extension of Separation, Aspiration, and Fat Equalization (SAFELipo). In expansion vibration lipofilling, there is simultaneous disruption of recipient-site connective tissue, internal expansion using exploded-tip cannulas, and backfilling of these spaces with roller pump-propelled fat. METHODS: Two thousand four hundred nineteen consecutive cases of expansion vibration lipofilling fat transplantation to the buttocks were reviewed. Average follow-up was 12 months. The technique of expansion vibration lipofilling is dependent on the use of larger caliber cannulas attached to a roller pump and to an oscillatory power-assisted liposuction device, which is less labor-intensive, potentially allowing for better knowledge of cannula-tip location at all times during the procedure. RESULTS: Operating times averaged 1 hour 40 minutes. The average volume of fat inserted was 1003 cc. Complications included donor-site seroma, infection, and one pulmonary embolism treated with anticoagulation. There were no cases of fat embolism or death. CONCLUSIONS: Expansion vibration lipofilling is a new method for large-volume fat transplantation. Avoidance of fatal fat emboli demands a surgeon's complete knowledge of cannula tip location at all times during the procedure. Syringe-free, larger caliber, and less flexible cannulas, combined with techniques requiring less operator upper extremity effort resulting in less fatigue, may contribute to avoidance of this dreadful complication. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

Gluteal Augmentation Techniques: A Comprehensive Literature Review.

Background: Many studies of gluteal augmentation techniques have been published in recent decades, including case reports, retrospective and prospective case series, and multicenter survey reviews. However, to date, there has been no study of the overall complications or satisfaction rates associated with the broad spectrum of techniques. Objectives: The authors performed a comprehensive literature review to determine outcomes and complications of gluteoplasty techniques, including patient satisfaction. Methods: A search on PubMed/Medline was performed for clinical studies involving gluteal augmentation techniques. A priori criteria were used to review the resulting articles. Results: Fifty-two studies, published from 1969 through 2015, were included - representing 7834 treated patients. Five gluteal augmentation techniques were identified from these studies: gluteal augmentation with implants (n = 4781), autologous fat grafting (n = 2609), local flaps (n = 369), hyaluronic acid gel injection (n = 69), and local tissue rearrangement (n = 6). The overall complication rates of the most commonly utilized techniques were: 30.5% for gluteal augmentation with implants, 10.5% for autologous fat grafting, and 22% for local flaps. Patients' satisfaction was reported as consistently high for all the five techniques. Conclusions: Implant-based gluteal augmentation is associated with high patients' satisfaction despite a high complication rate, while autologous fat grafting is associated with the lowest complication rate yet including serious major complications such as fat embolism. Local flaps and local tissue rearrangements are the ideal procedures in case of massive weight loss patients. A paucity of data is available for hyaluronic acid gel injections, which appear to be effective but temporary and expensive.

Fat embolism in pediatric patients: an autopsy evaluation of incidence and etiology.

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about the incidence and etiology of fat embolism in pediatric patients. We sought to determine the incidence, time course, and associated factors of pulmonary fat embolism (PFE), cerebral fat embolism (CFE), and kidney fat embolism (KFE) in trauma and nontrauma pediatric patients at the time of autopsy. METHODS: Retrospectively, a convenience sample of consecutive pediatric patients (age, ≤10 years) who had undergone autopsy between 2008 and 2012 were evaluated for fat embolism. Patients who had no documented cause of death or who were hospital births and died during the same hospitalization were excluded. Formalin-fixed paraffin sections were reviewed by a forensic pathologist for evidence of fat embolism and nuclear elements. Autopsy reports were used to determine cause of death, injuries, resuscitative efforts taken, sex, height, weight, and age. RESULTS: Sixty-seven decedents were evaluated. The median age was 2.0 years (interquartile range, 0.75-4), median body mass index (BMI) was 18.0 kg/m(2) (interquartile range, 15.7-19.0 kg/m(2)), and 55% of the patients were male. Pulmonary fat embolism, CFE, and KFE were present in 30%, 15%, and 3% of all patients, respectively. The incidence of PFE was not significantly different by cause of death (trauma 33%, drowning 36%, burn 14%, medical 28%). Patients with PFE but not CFE had significantly higher age, height, weight, and BMI. Half of the PFE and 57% of the CFE occurred in patients who lived less than 1 hour after beginning of resuscitation. Seventy-one percent of patients with CFE did not have a patent foramen ovale. Multivariate regression revealed an increased odds ratio of PFE based on BMI (1.244 [95% confidence interval, 1.043-1.484], P = .015). None of the samples evaluated demonstrated nuclear elements. CONCLUSIONS: Pulmonary fat embolism, CFE, and KFE are common in pediatric trauma and medical deaths. Body mass index is independently associated with the development of PFE. Absence of nuclear elements suggests that fat embolism did not originate from intramedullary fat.

Dynamic MR imaging patterns of cerebral fat embolism: a systematic review with illustrative cases.

Different MR imaging patterns of cerebral fat embolism have been reported in the literature without a systematic review. Our goal was to describe the patterns, explore the relationship between disease course and the imaging patterns, and discuss the underlying mechanism. We reveal 5 distinctive MR imaging patterns: 1) scattered embolic ischemia occurring dominantly at the acute stage; 2) confluent symmetric cytotoxic edema located at the cerebral white matter, which mainly occurs at the subacute stage; 3) vasogenic edematous lesions also occurring at the subacute stage; 4) petechial hemorrhage, which persists from the acute to the chronic stage; and 5) chronic sequelae, occurring at late stage, including cerebral atrophy, demyelinating change, and sequelae of infarction or necrosis. Underlying mechanisms of these imaging patterns are further discussed. Recognition of the 5 evolving MR imaging patterns of cerebral fat embolism may result in adjustment of the appropriate management and improve the outcome.

[Fat embolism syndrome after bone fractures]. / Síndrome de embolia grasa tras fractura ósea.

OBJECTIVES: To review the incidence, clinical features, diagnosis, therapy and mortality rates of fat embolism syndrome (FES) in a tertiary referral hospital in the last decade. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Retrospective and descriptive study of patients diagnosed with post-traumatic FES between january 2001 and december 2011. RESULTS: A total of 19 patients, 16 men and 3 women, with an average age of 27 years were evaluated. All had long bone fractures, multiple in 78.9%, as a result of multiple injuries. Respiratory symptoms were the most frequent (89.5%), followed by neurological symptoms (68.4%) and petechial rash (63.2%). The average time of presentation of the syndrome after admission was 42 hours. All patients underwent early stabilisation of the fracture prior to the embolic event. Steroids prophylaxis was not used in any of the cases. Definitive surgical treatment had mean delay of 7 days. The mean hospital stay was 34 days. The overall incidence of FES was 0.14%, and mortality was 10.5%. CONCLUSIONS: Post-traumatic FES mainly affected young patients with multiple injuries and long bone fractures. They all had symptoms of the classic clinical triad (respiratory, neurological, rash) after an initial asymptomatic period of less than 2 days. The overall incidence was low.

Role of corticosteroid as a prophylactic measure in fat embolism syndrome: a literature review.

Despite a number of studies on steroid therapy as a prophylactic measure in fat embolism syndrome (FES), there is no universal agreement about its role in this critical situation. The present article attempts to search the available literature, and provides a more lucid picture to the readers on this issue. Seven articles (total 483 patients) were reviewed and analyzed. Total of 223 patients received steroid (methyl prednisolone sodium succinate), while the remaining 260 patients formed the control population. Among these subjects, 9 patients in steroid-receiving group and 60 patients in the control group developed FES (P < 0.05). The lack of uniformities in these studies, variable dose and single-center trial are the principal limitations and confuses the surgeons to have definite conclusion. Large-scale, more uniformly designed, multi-centered, randomized, prospective trials are needed to determine the correct situations and dosage in which steroids provide the maximum benefit (with the least possible risk).

Cerebral fat emboli: a trigger of post-operative delirium.

Accumulating evidence implicates cerebral fat embolism (CFE) as a causative agent in post-operative confusion (POC). CFE occurs following orthopaedic procedures including, intra-medullary (IM) nailing and total joint arthroplasty (TJA). The incidence of CFE is high (59-100% TJA) and the resulting POC is associated with higher overall complication rates. Cognitive dysfunction improves in many patients but can persist - with potentially disastrous outcomes. The pathomechanics of CFE implicate circulating lipid micro-emboli (LME) that are forced from IM depots by instrumentation/nailing. Passage to the left side of the heart is possible through intra-cardiac or arteriovenous shunts in the lung. LME are propelled to the brain where they cause disruption via ischemia or by alterations in the blood-brain-barrier - causing cerebral oedema. Prevention of CFE follows established practices for preventing FES and consideration of additional techniques to remove resident fat and reduce IM pressures. When CFE occurs supportive treatment should be established.

Incidence of pulmonary fat embolism at autopsy: an undiagnosed epidemic.

BACKGROUND: To determine the incidence, time course, and severity of pulmonary fat embolism (PFE) and cerebral fat embolism (CFE) in trauma and nontrauma patients at the time of autopsy. METHODS: Prospectively, consecutive patients presenting for autopsy were evaluated for evidence pulmonary and brain fat embolism. The lung sections were obtained from the upper and lower lobe of the patients' lungs on the right and left and brain tissue. This tissue was prepared with osmium tetroxide for histologic evaluation. The number of fat droplets per high power field was counted for all sections. The autopsy reports and medical records were used to determine cause of death, time to death, injuries, if cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was attempted, sex, height, weight, and age. RESULTS: Fifty decedents were evaluated for PFE and CFE. The average age was 45.8 years ± 17.4 years, average body mass index was 30.1 kg/cm² ± 7.0 kg/cm², and 68% of the patients were men. The cause of death was determined to be trauma in 68% (34/50) of decedents, with 88% (30/34) blunt and 12% (4/34) penetrating. CPR was performed on 30% (15/50), and PFE was present in 76% (38/50) of all patients. Subjects with PFE had no difference with respect to sex, trauma, mechanism of injury, CPR, external contusions, fractures, head, spine, chest, abdominal, pelvic, and extremity injuries. However, subjects without PFE had significantly increased weight (109 ± 29 kg vs. 86 ± 18 kg; p = 0.023) but no difference in height or body mass index. PFE was present in 82% (28/34) of trauma patents and 63% (10/16) nontrauma patients. Eighty-eight percent of nontrauma patients and 86% of trauma patients who received CPR had PFE. Trauma patients with PFE showed no significant difference in any group. Eighty-eight percent of trauma patients died within 1 hour of injury, and 80% (24/30) of them had PFE at the time of autopsy. CFE was present only in one patient with a severe head and cervical spine injury. CONCLUSION: PFE is common in trauma patients. CPR is associated with a high incidence of PFE regardless of cause of death. PFE occurs acutely within the "golden hour" and should be considered in traumatically injured patients. Further studies are needed to evaluate the pathogenesis of PFE.

Fat emboli in total knee arthroplasty: a prospective randomized study of computer-assisted navigation vs standard surgical technique.

A prospective exploratory study of fat emboli in patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty was performed in patients randomly assigned to surgery with computer-assisted navigation or standard technique. Transesophageal echocardiography of the right atrium was recorded for 5 consecutive 1-minute intervals after tourniquet deflation. Emboli were graded on a scale of 0 to 3 based on embolism size, amount of atrium filled, and duration of embolic shower, creating an overall score of 0 to 9. The mean (SD, range) of the 5 overall scores for each total knee arthroplasty was 6.00 (0.76, 4.6-7.4) for computer-assisted navigation (22 patients) and 6.42 (0.97, 4.6-7.9) for standard technique (22 patients) (P=.14), with a 95% confidence interval for the difference of -0.11 to 0.95. We conclude that any difference in extent of emboli between the 2 surgical techniques is unlikely to be of clinical significance.

Fat embolism.

Fat embolism refers to the presence of fat droplets within the peripheral and lung microcirculation with or without clinical sequelae. The pathologic consequences of fat embolism are well recognized. Fat embolism is most often associated with trauma and orthopedic injuries. Fat embolism syndrome (FES) is a serious manifestation of fat embolism that involves a cascade of clinical signs such as petechial rash, deteriorating mental status, and progressive respiratory insufficiency, usually occurring within 24 hours of injury. This article reviews the definition, epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, management, and prognosis of FES.

Fat embolism syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the incidence and risk factors for fat embolism syndrome. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey (NHDS) were analyzed using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) codes. RESULTS: From 1979 through 2005 among 928,324,000 patients discharged from short-stay hospitals in the United States, 41,000 (0.004%) had fat embolism syndrome. Among 21,538,000 patients with an isolated fracture of the femur (any site), tibia, fibula, pelvis, ribs, humerus, radius, or ulna, 25,000 (0.12%) developed fat embolism syndrome. Patients with multiple fractures of the femur (excluding neck) more often had fat embolism syndrome than those with isolated fractures (1.29% versus 0.54%). The incidence of fat embolism syndrome was lower with isolated fractures of the tibia or fibula (0.30%) and even lower with isolated fractures of the neck of the femur (0.06%). The incidence of fat embolism was too low to calculate with isolated fractures of the pelvis, ribs, humerus, radius, or ulna. Nonorthopedic conditions rarely, if ever, were accompanied by fat embolism syndrome. The fat embolism syndrome was more frequent in men (relative risk 5.71). Children, aged 0 to 9 years rarely had fat embolism syndrome. The fat embolism syndrome most commonly affected patients aged 10 to 39 years. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of the fat embolism syndrome depends on the bone involved, whether fractures are isolated or multiple, the age of the patient and the gender. It rarely occurs as a result of medical conditions.