Personal Finance: Basic Instruments, Taxation Strategies, & Unique Opportunities.

The authors provide a simple primer for hand surgeons to further educate themselves on the basics of investing, tax reduction strategies that are completely legal, insurance protection, especially in your formative years, and unusual options available for further consideration. There are many ways for further education including publications related to finance, investment clubs of like-minded individuals, mentors that have extensive experience in these areas, and formal courses sponsored by business schools or other venues. The opportunities and regulatory environment are ever-changing, so one needs to constantly keep up with taxation rules and newer investment options.

Why "free maternal healthcare" is not entirely free in Ghana: a qualitative exploration of the role of street-level bureaucratic power.

BACKGROUND: Ghana introduced a free maternal healthcare policy within its National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) in 2008 to remove financial barriers to accessing maternal health services. Despite this policy, evidence suggests that women incur substantial out-of-pocket (OOP) payments for maternal health care. This study explores the underlying reasons for these persistent out-of-pocket payments within the context of Ghana's free maternal healthcare policy. METHODS: Cross-sectional qualitative data were collected through interviews with a purposive sample of 14 mothers and 8 healthcare providers/administrators in two regions of Ghana between May and September 2022. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and imported into the NVivo 14.0 software for analysis. An iteratively developed codebook guided the coding process. Our thematic data analysis followed the Attride-Sterling framework for network analysis, identifying basic, organising themes and global themes. RESULTS: We found that health systems and demand-side factors are responsible for the persistence of OOP payments despite the existence of the free maternal healthcare policy in Ghana. Reasons for these payments arose from health systems factors, particularly, NHIS structural issues - delayed and insufficient reimbursements, inadequate NHIS benefit coverage, stockouts and supply chain challenges and demand-side factors - mothers' lack of education about the NHIS benefit package, and passing of cost onto patients. Due to structural and system level challenges, healthcare providers, exercising their street-level bureaucratic power, have partly repackaged the policy, enabling the persistence of out-of-pocket payments for maternal healthcare. CONCLUSIONS: Urgent measures are required to address the structural and administrative issues confronting Ghana's free maternal health policy; otherwise, Ghana may not achieve the sustainable development goals targets on maternal and child health.

Transfusion burden and willingness to pay for temporary alleviation of anemia status in transfusion-dependent beta-thalassemia patients in China.

BACKGROUND: Transfusion-dependent ß-thalassemia (TDT) is one of the global public health concerns highlighted by the World Health Organization. Patients with TDT require regular blood transfusion to survive. However, the availability of blood resources is extremely limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate transfusion burden and willingness to pay (WTP) for temporary remission of anemia status among patients with TDT and to explore the associated factors. METHODS: Adult patients with TDT were recruited through cluster sampling across several high-incidence provinces in China. Consenting patients completed online questionnaires on demographic information, transfusion burden and WTP with real-time WeChat communication assistance from researchers. The guiding techniques of double-bounded dichotomous choices and open-ended questions in the contingent valuation method (CVM) were used to obtain participants' WTP for 1 unit of leukocyte-depleted red blood cells. WTP calculations were performed using maximum likelihood estimation, with further insights gained through subgroup analysis based on gender, family monthly income level and convenience of blood transfusion. RESULTS: The analysis included 149 TDT patients from five high-incidence provinces, with an average monthly income of $198.5. Patients received an average of 3.7 units per transfusion, 15.4 times annually, with an average WTP of $70.4 per unit (95% CI [62.0, 78.9]). Estimated WTP for temporary anemia alleviation per transfusion totaled $260.6, exceeding monthly income by 1.32 times. Higher WTP was observed among males, higher-income households, and those with at least junior education. Lower WTP was noted among patients with lower transfusion volumes and those needing to travel for transfusion or during hospitalization for blood transfusion. CONCLUSION: High WTP indicated a strong desire for temporary anemia relief. Most TDT patients faced significant economic and transfusion burden. The evident gap in meeting clinical needed underscores the urgent demand for innovative treatments to reduce transfusion dependency, potentially transforming TDT care and improving socioeconomic well-being and clinical outcomes. These findings supported evidence-based decision-making for TDT pharmacoeconomics and efficient healthcare resource allocation in China.

Revisiting a decade of inequality in healthcare financial burden in Cambodia, 2009-19: trends, determinants and decomposition.

BACKGROUND: Out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure (OOPHE) without adequate social protection often translates to inequitable financial burden and utilization of services. Recent publications highlighted Cambodia's progress towards Universal Health Coverage (UHC) with reduced incidence of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) and improvements in its distribution. However, departing from standard CHE measurement methods suggests a different storyline on trends and inequality in the country. OBJECTIVE: This study revisits the distribution and impact of OOPHE and its financial burden from 2009-19, employing alternative socio-economic and economic shock metrics. It also identifies determinants of the financial burden and evaluates inequality-contributing and -mitigating factors from 2014-19, including coping mechanisms, free healthcare, and OOPHE financing sources. METHODS: Data from the Cambodian Socio-Economic Surveys of 2009, 2014, and 2019 were utilized. An alternative measure to CHE is proposed: Excessive financial burden (EFB). A household was considered under EFB when its OOPHE surpassed 10% or 25% of total consumption, excluding healthcare costs. A polychoric wealth index was used to rank households and measure EFB inequality using the Erreygers Concentration Index. Inequality shifts from 2014-19 were decomposed using the Recentered Influence Function regression followed by the Oaxaca-Blinder method. Determinants of financial burden levels were assessed through zero-inflated ordered logit regression. RESULTS: Between 2009-19, EFB incidence increased from 10.95% to 17.92% at the 10% threshold, and from 4.41% to 7.29% at the 25% threshold. EFB was systematically concentrated among the poorest households, with inequality sharply rising over time, and nearly a quarter of the poorest households facing EFB at the 10% threshold. The main determinants of financial burden were geographic location, household size, age and education of household head, social health protection coverage, disease prevalence, hospitalization, and coping strategies. Urbanization, biased disease burdens, and preventive care were key in explaining the evolution of inequality. CONCLUSION: More efforts are needed to expand social protection, but monitoring those through standard measures such as CHE has masked inequality and the burden of the poor. The financial burden across the population has risen and become more unequal over the past decade despite expansion and improvements in social health protection schemes. Health Equity funds have, to some extent, mitigated inequality over time. However, their slow expansion and the reduced reliance on coping strategies to finance OOPHE could not outbalance inequality.

Factors associated with household willingness to pay for Universal Health Coverage in Cameroon: a nationwide cross-sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Sustained financing for Universal Health Coverage (UHC) has been a concern for the Cameroon government. Household contributions have been considered as a financing mechanism, but this raises concerns on the willingness of households to pay for UHC. The current study assessed factors associated with the willingness to pay (WTP) for UHC in Cameroon. METHODS: Community based, cross-sectional analysis of data from households (selected via multi-stage, randomized, cluster sampling) across all ten regions of Cameroon, during July 2020. Factors associated with WTP for UHC were determined using a multinominal logistic regression model, tested at varying significance levels (1%, 5%, and 10%) to enhance its ability to detect meaningful and practical value associations. RESULTS: Overall, 5,014 households were surveyed, 64.3% and 35.6% from rural and urban areas respectively. Household heads were 40.2 ± 10.1 years old and mostly male (60.6%). Most surveyed households (72%) were willing to contribute for UHC. Amongst these willing households, WTP varied with the sex (females opted for lower payments) and educational level (those with ≥ high school education opted for contributions ≥ US$ 165.6 annually, p < 0.01) of the household head. WTP also varied proportionally with household income and was influenced by the sector of activity (formal secondary/tertiary and informal sector workers opted for contributions > US$ 165.6 annually, p < 0.01) of the household head. Other factors affecting WTP included household size (households with ≥ 13 persons opted for contributions ≥ US$ 165.6, p < 0.01) and the age of the household head (those ≥ 55 years opted for higher contributions; US$ 33.1-82.6, p < 0.01). WTP varied positively with knowledge on UHC and affiliation to a health insurance scheme. Household who did not resort to self-medication/prayers when in need of healthcare services opted for higher contributions (US$ 82.6- 165.6, p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: UHC implementation in Cameroon will require that factors shown here-in to influence WTP be carefully considered. Modifiable factors such as self-medication/prayers and poor knowledge on UHC, underlines the need for greater sensitization on UHC. Given the high WTP from the informal sector, characterization of the sector could go a long way to increase the financial envelope allocated for UHC.

Out-of-pocket medical expenditures, remittances and health outcomes in China.

This study examines the relationship between out-of-pocket medical expenditures, remittances and health outcomes in China using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) methods. The analysis is based on data from the Global Financial Inclusion database by the World Bank (2021), encompassing a sample of 3,446 individuals. The results indicate that out of-pocket expenditure has a negative impact on health outcomes, while remittance shows a positive association across all age groups, including reproductive and non-reproductive populations. These findings suggest that high out-of-pocket medical costs may hinder access to healthcare services and lead to poorer health outcomes. Conversely, remittance plays a beneficial role in improving health outcomes, highlighting the potential of financial support to positively impact the well-being of individuals.

Cette étude examine la relation entre les dépenses médicales directes, les envois de fonds et les résultats de santé en Chine à l'aide des méthodes des moindres carrés ordinaires (OLS) et de l'appariement des scores de propension (PSM). L'analyse est basée sur les données de la base de données Global Financial Inclusion de la Banque mondiale (2021), portant sur un échantillon de 3 446 personnes. Les résultats indiquent que les dépenses directes ont un impact négatif sur les résultats en matière de santé, tandis que les envois de fonds montrent une association positive dans tous les groupes d'âge, y compris les populations reproductrices et non reproductrices. Ces résultats suggèrent que des frais médicaux élevés peuvent entraver l'accès aux services de santé et conduire à de moins bons résultats en matière de santé. À l'inverse, les envois de fonds jouent un rôle bénéfique dans l'amélioration des résultats en matière de santé, soulignant le potentiel du soutien financier à avoir un impact positif sur le bien-être des individus.

Medical Debt-The Canary in the Coal Mine for Health Care Affordability.

This JAMA Forum discusses the issues surrounding medical debt in the US and reflects on policy efforts made in recent years to solve some of the root causes.

Variations in out-of-pocket spending and factors influencing catastrophic health expenditure of households with patients suffering from chronic conditions in four districts in Sri Lanka.

INTRODUCTION: Healthcare financing systems, dependent on out-of-pocket expenditure(OOPE), impose a heavy burden on those who use the services regularly, such as patients suffering from chronic diseases. High OOPE for health services leads to decreased utilization of the services and/or catastrophic health expenditure, which would significantly impede the achievement of Universal Health coverage. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine variations in OOPE and factors associated with Catastrophic Health Expenditure (CHE) of households with patients suffering from non-communicable diseases(NCDs) in four districts. METHODS: A survey was conducted among 2344 adult patients having selected NCD/s. Multi-stage stratified cluster sampling selected respondents from 4 districts representing urban, rural, semi-urban, and estate. Data was collected using a validated interviewer-administered questionnaire. Logistic regression identified the predictors of CHE(> 40%). Significance was considered as 0.05. RESULTS: Common NCDs were hypertension(29.1%), diabetes(26.8.0%), hyperlipidaemia(9.8%) and asthma(8.2%). Only 13% reported complications associated with NCDs. Fifty-six percent(N = 1304) were on regular clinic follow-up, and majority utilized western-medical government hospitals(N = 916,70.2%). There were 252 hospital admissions for chronic-disease management in the past 12 months. Majority(86%) were admitted to government sector hospitals. Most patients incurred nearly SLR 3000 per clinic visit and SLR 3300 per hospital admission. CHE was beyond 40% for 13.5% of the hospital admissions and 6.1% of the regular clinic follow-up. Patients admitted to private sector hospitals had 2.61 times higher CHE than those admitted to government sector hospitals. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with NCDs incurred high OOPE and faced CHE during healthcare seeking in Sri Lanka. The prevalence of NCDs and complications were high among the participants. Patients with chronic conditions incur high OOPE for a single clinic visit and a hospital admission. Patients incur high OOPE on direct medical costs, and district-wise variations were observed. The proportion with more than 40% CHE on monthly clinic care was high. Patients being followed up in the government sector are more likely to have CHE when obtaining healthcare and are more likely to face barriers in obtaining needed health services. The services rendered to patients with chronic conditions warrant a more integrative approach to reduce the burden of costs and related complications.

Beyond average spending: distributional and seasonal commercial insurance trends, 2012-2021.

OBJECTIVES: The annual mean spending measures typically used to study longitudinal trends mask distributional and seasonal variation that is relevant to patients' perceptions of health care affordability and, in turn, provider collections. This study describes shifts in the distribution and seasonality of plan and patient out-of-pocket spending from 2012 through 2021. STUDY DESIGN: Analysis of multipayer commercial claims data. METHODS: Medical spending per enrollee was calculated by summing inpatient, outpatient, and professional services, which comprised plan payments and out-of-pocket payments (deductible, coinsurance, co-payment). To account for the long right tail of the spending distribution, enrollees were stratified by their decile of annual medical spending, and annual mean spending estimates were calculated overall and by decile. Mean spending estimates were also calculated by quarter-year. RESULTS: Inflation-adjusted medical spending grew most quickly among the highest decile of spenders, without proportional growth in their out-of-pocket expenses. Out-of-pocket spending increased for the majority of enrollees in our sample prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, in real dollars and as a share of total medical spending. Out-of-pocket spending was increasingly concentrated in the early months of the calendar year, driven by deductible spending, and was lower in 2020 and 2021, plausibly due to policies limiting cost sharing for COVID-19-related services. CONCLUSIONS: Insurance is working well to protect the highest spenders at the cost of reduced insurance generosity among spenders elsewhere in the distribution. The increasing cross-subsidization among enrollees through cost-sharing design-vs premiums-is a trend to watch among rising public concerns about underinsurance and medical debt.

Household financial burden associated with out-of-pocket payments for healthcare in Iran: insights from a cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: One of the key functions and ultimate goals of health systems is to provide financial protection for individuals when using health services. This study sought to evaluate the level of financial protection and its inequality among individuals covered by the Social Security Organization (SSO) health insurance between September and December 2023 in Iran. METHODS: We collected data on 1691 households in five provinces using multistage sampling to examine the prevalence of catastrophic healthcare expenditure (CHE) at four different thresholds (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) of the household's capacity to pay (CTP). Additionally, we explored the prevalence of impoverishment due to health costs and assessed socioeconomic-related inequality in OOP payments for healthcare using the concentration index and concentration curve. To measure equity in out-of-pocket (OOP) payments for healthcare, we utilized the Kakwani progressivity index (KPI). Furthermore, we employed multiple logistic regression to identify the main factors contributing to households experiencing CHE. FINDINGS: The study revealed that households in our sample allocated approximately 11% of their budgets to healthcare services. The prevalence of CHE at the thresholds of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% was found to be 47.1%, 30.1%, 20.1%, and 15.7%, respectively. Additionally, we observed that about 7.9% of the households experienced impoverishment due to health costs. Multiple logistic regression analysis indicated that the age of the head of the household, place of residence, socioeconomic status, utilization of dental services, utilization of medicine, and province of residence were the main factors influencing CHE. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that while wealthy households spend more money on healthcare, poorer households spend a larger proportion of their total income to healthcare costs. The KPI showed that households with lower total expenditures had higher OOP payments relative to their CTP. CONCLUSION: The study findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to improve financial protection in healthcare and mitigate inequalities among individuals covered by SSO. It is recommended that these interventions prioritize the expansion of coverage for dental services and medication expenses, particularly for lower socioeconomic status household.

Persistency of catastrophic out-of-pocket health expenditures: Measurement with evidence from three African countries - Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda.

Catastrophic out-of-pocket health expenditure (CHE) remain high in Sub-Saharan Africa and may not conform to the sporadic random pattern of acute illnesses that shapes insurance arrangements intended to avoid the risk of financial loss. The persistency of CHE remains a largely unexplored issue due to the lack of relevant methods and scarcity of panel data. This paper addresses the first shortcoming by presenting three different approaches to incorporating the timeframes into the analysis, considering dynamics between two periods, average over time and the recurrence of CHE incidence. Through the application of the complementary approaches, we identify (i) those at risk of persistent CHE in the short-term; (ii) those facing transient versus persistent CHE in the long-term; and (iii) those facing multiple CHE spells. The methods are applied to different definitions of CHE using panel data from three sub-Saharan countries: Malawi (3 waves: 2010, 2013, and 2016) with 4983 observations; Tanzania (3 waves: 2008, 2010, and 2012) with 8715 observations; and Uganda (5 waves: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2015) with 6475 observations. All datasets are balanced panels. Additionally, we employ empirical strategies to identify the underlying factors contributing to these persistent and relatively high OOP. Across the three countries, we find that at least 27% of the people facing CHE in one period, because they spent more than 5% of their household budget on health out-of-pocket, will face it again in the next period. The lower-bound risk for those spending more than 10% of their household budget is 9% and for those spending more than 25% of their household capacity to pay is 13%. Between 11% and 45% of the population incurred CHE at least twice during the observation period when using the 5% budget definition of CHE. The double recurrence rate ranges between 7% and 13% when using the 25% capacity-to-pay definition and between 3% and 20% when using the 10% budgetshare definition. Between 22% and 32% of the population experienced chronic CHE at the 5% of the budgetshare definition (6%-10% at the 10% of the budgetshare definition of CHE; 2%-11% at 25% of capacity-to-pay). Our panel regression analysis consistently highlights the susceptibility of certain groups to face persistence CHE, notably those residing in rural areas, individuals with lower levels of education, the elderly, and those who have undergone hospitalizations.

Disparate Patient Advocacy When Facing Unaffordable and Problematic Medical Bills.

Importance: People in the US face high out-of-pocket medical expenses, yielding financial strain and debt. Objective: To understand how households respond to medical bills they disagree with or cannot afford. Design, Setting, and Participants: A retrospective cohort study was carried out using a survey fielded between August 14 and October 14, 2023. The study included a random sample of adult (aged ≥18 years) survey respondents from the Understanding America Study (UAS). Participant responses were weighted to be nationally representative. The analysis took place from November 3, 2023, through January 8, 2024. Main Outcomes and Measures: Respondents reported if their household received a medical bill that they could not afford or did not agree with in the prior 12 months, and if anyone contacted the billing office regarding their concerns. Those who did reach out were asked about their experience and those who did not were asked why. Results: The survey was sent to 1233 UAS panelists, of which 1135 completed the survey, a 92.1% cooperation rate. Overall, 1 in 5 of the 1135 respondents received a medical bill that they disagreed with or could not afford. Leading bill sources were physician offices (66 [34.6%]), emergency room or urgent care (22 [19.9%]), and hospitals (31 [15.3%]), and 136 respondents (61.5%) contacted the billing office to address their concern. A more extroverted and less agreeable personality increased likelihood of reaching out. Respondents without a college degree, lower financial literacy, and the uninsured were less likely to contact a billing office. Among those who did not reach out, 55 (86.1%) reported that they did not think it would make a difference. Of those who reached out, 37 (25.7%) achieved bill corrections, better understanding (16 [18.2%]), payment plans (18 [15.5%]), price drop (17 [15.2%]), financial assistance (10 [8.1%]), and/or bill cancellation (6 [7.3%]), while 32 (21.8%) said that the issue was unresolved and 23.8% reported no change. These outcomes aligned well with respondents' billing concerns with financial relief for 75.8% of respondents reaching out about an unaffordable bill, bill corrections for 73.7% of those who thought there was mistake, and a price drop for 61.8% of those who negotiated. Conclusions and Relevance: This cross-sectional survey of a representative sample of patients in the US found that most respondents who self-advocated achieved bill corrections and payment relief. Differences in self-advocacy may be exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities in medical debt burden, as those with less education, lower financial literacy, and the uninsured were less likely to self-advocate. Policies that streamline the administrative burden or shift it from patients to the billing clinician may counter these disparities.

A Contingent Valuation Study for Use in Valuing Public Goods with Health Externalities: The Case of Street Pianos.

BACKGROUND: Clinical healthcare is not the only way to improve an individual's health. Community-based interventions can have health and wellbeing impacts as well; however, the nature of these interventions, which have public good characteristics, poses challenges for the typical ways in which we value outcomes for use in (health) economic evaluations. The approaches to valuation of these type of interventions should allow for the incorporation of all types of values including option value, externalities and individual use-value. OBJECTIVE: This is a feasibility study with the objective to re-consider the importance of health externalities when valuing public health interventions that are treated as public goods from an economic perspective. METHODS: A contingent valuation (CV) survey was designed to elicit individual willingness to pay (WTP) for the public piano programme (PPP). Five different scenarios were designed; three scenarios focussed on individual use-value, while the other two (scenarios 4 and 5) covered option values and externalities. An online survey was conducted with a sample of 105 people. RESULTS: Preferences differed across the different scenarios. The mean WTP for scenario 1 was £0.81, for scenario 2 £3.65, for scenario 3 £3.07, for scenario 4 £7.26 and for scenario 5 £6.02. The WTP results for each scenario are presented and discussed regarding the nature of the good, user and non-user perspectives, payment vehicles and individual characteristics. CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence that all types of use are necessary for inclusion in an economic evaluation, especially when the good in question is a public good where its benefits can be obtained from all community members.

Impact of Government-Funded Health Insurance on Out-of-Pocket Expenditure and Quality of Hospital-Based Care in Indian States of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

BACKGROUND: With its clear focus on financial protection, government-funded health insurance (GFHI) stands out among the strategies for universal health coverage (UHC) implemented by low-to-middle income countries globally. Since 2018, India has implemented a GFHI programme called the Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY), which covers 500 million individuals. The current study aims to evaluate the performance of GFHI in meeting its key objectives of improving access, quality and financial protection for hospital-based care in two large central Indian states: Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. METHODS: The study measures access in terms of utilisation of inpatient care. Financial protection was measured in terms of catastrophic health expenditure which was defined as the incidence of out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) above thresholds of 10% and 25% of annual household expenditure. Patient-satisfaction with care was taken as an indicator of quality. A household survey was conducted in 2023, covering a multi-stage sample of 11,569 and 12,384 individuals in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, respectively. Multi-variate analyses were conducted to find the effect of GFHI-enrolment on the desired outcomes. The instrumental variable method was applied to address potential endogeneity in insurance enrolment. Additionally, propensity score matching was done to ensure robustness. RESULTS: Around 71% and 63% of surveyed individuals were enrolled under GFHI in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, respectively. The hospitalisation rate did not differ much between the GFHI-enrolled and non-enrolled population. The average OOPE on hospitalisation was similar for the GFHI-enrolled and non-enrolled patients. The OOPE and catastrophic health expenditure in private hospitals remained very high, irrespective of GFHI enrolment. The pattern was similar in both states. Multi-variate adjusted models showed that GFHI had no significant effect on utilisation, quality, OOPE and catastrophic health expenditure. The above results were confirmed by propensity score matching. CONCLUSIONS: Coverage by GFHI enrolment was ineffective in improving access, quality or financial protection for inpatient hospital care despite 5 years of implementation of the programme. Long-standing supply-side gaps and poor regulation of private providers continue to hamper the effectiveness of GFHI in India.

Factors influencing willingness to pay for improved solid waste collection services among households in urban cities in Uganda: empirical evidence from Lira City.

Waste management in Lira City, Uganda faces significant challenges, particularly in the area of waste collection. Pollution and health risks from uncollected waste are rampant, posing serious threats to human health and the environment. This persistent problem demands urgent attention and effective solutions to improve waste collection and safeguard the well-being of the community and the natural surroundings. This study aimed to assess households' willingness to pay for improved waste collection services, examine their waste management practices, and identify influencing factors. We employed a multistage sampling technique to randomly select 585 household heads and conducted key informant interviews with city officials and private waste collectors. Data analysis was conducted with STATA 17 and results showed that 48.12% of households were willing to pay an average of UGX 3012 ($0.84) per month for better services. Factors including education level, occupation, distance to waste collection sites, and environmental awareness significantly influenced this willingness. The study highlights a significant gap in public awareness and understanding of efficient solid waste management practices and concludes that enhancing public awareness is crucial for improving environmental health and safety in Lira City.

Assessing the equity and coverage policy sensitivity of financial protection indicators in Europe.

Progress towards universal health coverage is monitored by the incidence of catastrophic spending. Two catastrophic spending indicators are commonly used in Europe: Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicator 3.8.2 and the WHO Regional Office for Europe (WHO/Europe) indicator. The use of different indicators can cause confusion, especially if they produce contradictory results and policy implications. We use harmonised household budget survey data from 27 European Union countries covering 505,217 households and estimate the risk of catastrophic spending, conditional on household characteristics and the design of medicines co-payments. We calculate the predicted probability of catastrophic spending for particular households, which we call LISAs, under combinations of medicines co-payment policies and compare predictions across the two indicators. Using the WHO/Europe indicator, any combination of two or more protective policies (i.e. low fixed co-payments instead of percentage co-payments, exemptions for low-income households and income-related caps on co-payments) is associated with a statistically significant lower risk of catastrophic spending. Using the SDG indicator, confidence intervals for every combination of protective policies overlap with those for no protective policies. Although out-of-pocket medicines spending is a strong predictor of catastrophic spending using both indicators, the WHO/Europe indicator is more sensitive to medicines co-payment policies than the SDG indicator, making it a better indicator to monitor health system equity and progress towards UHC in Europe.

Catastrophic out-of-pocket payments related to non-communicable disease multimorbidity and associated factors, evidence from a public referral hospital in Addis Ababa Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: In low and middle-income countries (LMICs), non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are on the rise and have become a significant cause of mortality. Unfortunately, accessing affordable healthcare services can prove to be challenging for individuals who are unable to bear the expenses out of their pockets. For NCDs, the treatment costs are already high, and being multimorbid further amplifies the economic burden on patients and their families. The present study seeks to bridge the gap in knowledge regarding the financial risks that come with NCD multimorbidity. It accomplishes this by examining the catastrophic out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditure levels and the factors that contribute to it at Tikur Anbesa Specialized Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS: A facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted at Tikur Anbesa Specialized Hospital between May 18 and July 22, 2020 and 392 multimorbid patients participated. The study participants were selected from the hospital's four NCD clinics using systematic random sampling. Patients' direct medical and non-medical out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditures were recorded, and the catastrophic OOP health expenditure for NCD care was estimated using various thresholds as cutoff points (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 40% of both total household consumption expenditure and non-food expenditure). The collected data was entered into Epi Data version 3.1 and analyzed using STATA V 14. Descriptive statistics were utilized to present the study's findings, while logistic regression was used to examine the associations between variables. RESULTS: A study was conducted on a sample of 392 patients who exhibited a range of socio-demographic and economic backgrounds. The annual out-of-pocket spending for the treatment of non-communicable disease multimorbidity was found to be $499.7 (95% CI: $440.9, $558.6) per patient. The majority of these expenses were allocated towards medical costs such as medication, diagnosis, and hospital beds. It was found that as the threshold for spending increased from 5 to 40% of total household consumption expenditure, the percentage of households facing catastrophic health expenditures (CHE) decreased from 77.55 to 10.46%. Similarly, the proportion of CHE as a percentage of non-food household expenditure decreased from 91.84 to 28.32% as the threshold increased from 5 to 40%. The study also revealed that patients who traveled to Addis Ababa for healthcare services (AOR = 7.45, 95% CI: 3.41-16.27), who were not enrolled in an insurance scheme (AOR = 4.97, 95% CI: 2.37, 10.4), who had more non-communicable diseases (AOR = 2.05, 95% CI: 1.40, 3.01), or who had more outpatient visits (AOR = 1.46, 95%CI: 1.31, 1.63) had a higher likelihood of incurring catastrophic out-of-pocket health expenditures at the 40% threshold. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION: This study has revealed that patients with multiple non-communicable diseases (NCDs) frequently face substantial out-of-pocket health expenditures (CHE) due to both medical and non-medical costs. Various factors, including absence from an insurance scheme, medical follow-ups necessitating travel to Addis Ababa, multiple NCDs and outpatient visits, and utilization of both public and private facilities, increase the likelihood of incurring CHE. To mitigate the incidence of CHE for individuals with NCD multimorbidity, an integrated NCD care service delivery approach, access to affordable medications and diagnostic services in public facilities, expanded insurance coverage, and fee waiver or service exemption systems should be explored.

Catastrophic health expenditure of inpatients in emerging economies: evidence from the Indian subcontinent.

BACKGROUND: Catastrophic health expenditures condensed the vital concern of households struggling with notable financial burdens emanating from elevated out-of-pocket healthcare expenditures. In this regard, this study investigated the nature and magnitude of inpatient healthcare expenditure in India. It also explored the incidence and determinants of inpatient catastrophic health expenditure. METHODOLOGY: The study used the micro-level data collected in the 75th Round of the National Sample Survey on 93 925 households in India. Descriptive statistics were used to examine the nature, magnitude and incidence of inpatient healthcare expenditure. The heteroscedastic probit model was applied to explore the determinants of inpatient catastrophic healthcare expenditure. RESULTS: The major part of inpatient healthcare expenditure was composed of bed charges and expenditure on medicines. Moreover, results suggested that Indian households spent 11% of their monthly consumption expenditure on inpatient healthcare and 28% of households were grappling with the complexity of financial burden due to elevated inpatient healthcare. Further, the study explored that bigger households and households having no latrine facilities and no proper waste disposal plans were more vulnerable to facing financial burdens in inpatient healthcare activity. Finally, the result of this study also ensure that households having toilets and safe drinking water facilities reduce the chance of facing catastrophic inpatient health expenditures. CONCLUSIONS: A significant portion of monthly consumption expenditure was spent on inpatient healthcare of households in India. It was also conveyed that inpatient healthcare expenditure was a severe burden for almost one fourth of households in India. Finally, it also clarified the influence of socio-economic conditions and sanitation status of households as having a strong bearing on their inpatient healthcare.

Preferences and Willingness to Pay for Herpes Zoster Vaccination Among Chinese Adults: Discrete Choice Experiment.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of herpes zoster (HZ) is rapidly increasing, causing both clinical and economic burdens in China. Very little is known about Chinese residents' HZ vaccine preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for each vaccination attribute. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to elicit the preferences of Chinese urban adults (aged 25 years or older) regarding HZ vaccination programs and to calculate WTP for each vaccination attribute. METHODS: In this study, we interviewed 2864 residents in 9 cities in China. A discrete choice experiment was conducted to investigate the residents' preferences for HZ vaccination and to predict the uptake rate for different vaccine scenarios. A mixed logit model was used to estimate the preferences and WTP for each attribute. Seven attributes with different levels were included in the experiment, and we divided the coefficients of other attributes by the coefficient of price to measure WTP. RESULTS: Vaccine effectiveness, protection duration, risk of side effects, place of origin, and cost were proven to influence Chinese adults' preferences for HZ vaccination. The effectiveness of the HZ vaccine was the attribute that had the most predominant impact on residents' preferences, followed by protection duration. The residents were willing to pay CN ¥974 (US $145) to increase the vaccine effectiveness from 45% to 90%, and they would barely pay to exchange the vaccination schedule from 2 doses to 1 dose. It is suggested that the expected uptake could be promoted the most (by 20.84%) with an increase in the protection rate from 45% to 90%. CONCLUSIONS: Chinese urban adults made trade-offs between vaccine effectiveness, protection duration, place of origin, side effects, and cost of HZ vaccination. Vaccine effectiveness was the most important characteristic. The residents have the highest WTP (CN ¥974; US $145) for enhancing the effectiveness of vaccines. To maximize HZ vaccine uptake, health authorities should promote vaccine effectiveness.

Does Willingness to Pay Differ for Mental and Physical Health?

OBJECTIVES: The urban environment can have a significant impact on mental and physical health. Health impact appraisal of new developments should address these issues. However, transferable economic valuation evidence for urban planners in the United Kingdom is thin, especially around mental health, making it harder to estimate the cost-efficiency of public health interventions to address these conditions. A further complication is that mental health may be perceived differently from physical health. This study examines willingness to pay (WTP) to avoid depression and lower back pain. METHODS: WTP estimates were obtained by applying contingent valuation tasks in an online survey with a representative sample in the United Kingdom (N = 1553). Interval regression models were used to estimate the effects of disease severity, payment frequency, and respondent characteristics on WTP. RESULTS: Respondents' WTP to avoid both conditions was relatively high (around 5%-6% of stated income to return to current health state). Depression was rated as being twice as burdensome on quality of life than pain, and bids to avoid depression were 20% to 30% more than pain. Analysis of motivation responses suggests mental health treatment is perceived as less easy to access and less effective than the equivalent for pain, and respondents expect a larger burden on their family and relationships as they try to manage their condition themselves. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that depression bids may be affected by uncertainty around access to effective treatment in the healthcare system. This has implications for how mental illness may be prioritized in resource allocation toward public health interventions.