Development and validation of a sensitive LC-MS/MS assay of GT-14, a novel Gαi2 inhibitor, in rat plasma, and its application in pharmacokinetic study.

A sensitive and selective LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the quantitation of a novel Gαi2 inhibitor, GT-14, in rat plasma using a SCIEX 6500+ triple QUAD LC-MS system equipped with an ExionLC UHPLC unit. GT-14 (m/z 265.2 → 134.1) and griseofulvin (Internal Standard, IS) (m/z 353.1 → 285.1) were detected in a positive mode by electrospray ionization (ESI) using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). The assay was linear in the concentration range of 0.78-1000 ng/mL in rat plasma. Both accuracy and precision values were within the acceptance criteria of ±15 %, as established by FDA guidance. The matrix effect was negligible from plasma, with signal percentages of 98.5-106.9 %. The mean recovery was 104.5 %, indicating complete extraction of GT-14 from plasma. GT-14 was found to be stable under different experimental conditions. The validated method was successfully applied to evaluate plasma protein binding and in vivo pharmacokinetics of GT-14 in rats.

Enhanced oral absorption of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs using quaternary ammonium palmitoyl glycol chitosan nanoparticles.

As 95% of all prescriptions are for orally administered drugs, the issue of oral absorption is central to the development of pharmaceuticals. Oral absorption is limited by a high molecular weight (>500 Da), a high log P value (>2.0) and low gastrointestinal permeability. We have designed a triple action nanomedicine from a chitosan amphiphile: quaternary ammonium palmitoyl glycol chitosan (GCPQ), which significantly enhances the oral absorption of hydrophobic drugs (e.g., griseofulvin and cyclosporin A) and, to a lesser extent, the absorption of hydrophilic drugs (e.g., ranitidine). The griseofulvin and cyclosporin A C(max) was increased 6- and 5-fold respectively with this new nanomedicine. Hydrophobic drug absorption is facilitated by the nanomedicine: (a) increasing the dissolution rate of hydrophobic molecules, (b) adhering to and penetrating the mucus layer and thus enabling intimate contact between the drug and the gastrointestinal epithelium absorptive cells, and (c) enhancing the transcellular transport of hydrophobic compounds. Although the C(max) of ranitidine was enhanced by 80% with the nanomedicine, there was no appreciable opening of tight junctions by the polymer particles.

Effect of oil-in-water submicron emulsion surface charge on oral absorption of a poorly water-soluble drug in rats.

The effect of oil-in-water submicron emulsion (SE) droplet surface charge on absolute bioavailability of a poorly water-soluble drug (griseofulvin, as model drug) after oral administration was studied in conscious rat. Positively, negatively, and neutrally charged SE were designed and characterized (size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and pH). Three emulsion formulations, whose compositions included 40% oil phase and differed only in the nature of the emulsifying agent, were retained. Only the positively charged SE showed a higher area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC(0 --> infinity)) in comparison with the tablet and with the other SE.

Evaluation of in vivo dissolution behavior and GI transit of griseofulvin, a BCS class II drug.

Mean plasma concentration-time profile of griseofulvin, a BCS class II drug, orally administered as powders into rats, was predicted based on GITA model. However, it was very difficult to predict the individual plasma profile because of large inter-individual difference. As the absorption of griseofulvin would be rate-limited by the dissolution process, we tried to analyze the in vivo dissolution kinetics of griseofulvin by focusing on gastric emptying and intestinal transit as physiological factors influencing the in vivo dissolution kinetics. After oral administration of griseofulvin, theophylline and sulfasalazine into rats, gastric emptying and intestinal transit were simultaneously estimated by analyzing the absorption kinetics of theophylline and observing the appearance of sulfapyridine in plasma, respectively. Gastric emptying kinetics was not significantly correlated with absorption or dissolution behavior of griseofulvin. On the other hand, the cecum-arriving time reflecting the intestinal transit was significantly correlated with both AUC and total dissolved amount of griseofulvin. T(max) of griseofulvin also increased with the increase of cecum-arriving time. These results clearly indicate that the longer residence time could lead to the higher dissolution and absorption of griseofulvin and that the variance of intestinal transit could be responsible for the inter-individual difference of the in vivo absorption behavior.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of a fast-disintegrating lyophilized dry emulsion tablet containing griseofulvin.

Development of a fast-disintegrating lyophilized dry emulsion (LDE) tablet that enhanced the in vitro dissolution and in vivo absorption of griseofulvin (GF) is presented. The LDE tablets were prepared by freeze-drying o/w emulsions of GF, a drug for which bioavailability is known to be enhanced by fat co-administration. Oil-in-water emulsions were prepared using a gelatin solution (2%, w/v) as the water phase and medium chain triglycerides (Miglyol) or sesame oil as the oil phase. In addition, different emulsifiers were evaluated. The influence of formulation parameters on the disintegration and in vitro dissolution of GF from LDE tablets along with other tablet characteristics were investigated. A significant influence of the emulsifier type on the tablet disintegration time was seen (p<0.01). Results obtained from dissolution studies showed that LDE tablets of GF improved the dissolution rate of the drug compared to the plain drug. The extent of absorption of GF from a selected LDE tablet formulation as compared to an immediate release conventional tablet as reference after single oral dose (125mg) administration was determined in four healthy subjects using a randomized crossover design. In this study, the rate of absorption of GF from LDE tablet was faster than that from the reference tablet and had significantly higher (p=0.02) peak plasma concentration (more than three times higher) and shortened time to C(max) by 4h (p=0.014). The extent of absorption expressed by AUC was 85% larger as compared to the commercial tablet. Stability results, after 6 months storage of LDE tablets at 25 degrees C and 60% relative humidity, showed a slight increase in disintegration time and residual moisture content, while results from dissolution studies showed slightly slower initial drug release.

Electrospray ionization LC-MS/MS validated method to quantify griseofulvin in human plasma and its application to bioequivalence study.

A simple, sensitive and rapid liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method has been developed and validated to quantify griseofulvin in human plasma using propranolol hydrochloride as internal standard (IS). Samples were prepared using solid phase extraction and analysed without drying and reconstitution. The analytes were chromatographed on Hypersil, hypurity C18 reverse phase column under isocratic conditions using 0.05% formic acid in water:acetonitrile (30:70, v/v) as the mobile phase. Total chromatographic run time was 3.0 min. Quantitation was done on a triple quadrupole mass analyzer API-3000, equipped with turbo ion spray interface and operating in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode to detect parent-->product ion transition for analyte and IS. The method was validated for sensitivity, matrix effect, accuracy and precision, linearity, recovery and stability studies. Linearity in plasma was observed over the concentration range 20-3000 ng/mL for griseofulvin. Lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) achieved was 20 ng/mL with precision (CV) less than 10% using 5 microL injection volume. The absolute recovery of analyte (87.36%) and IS (98.91%) from spiked plasma samples was consistent and reproducible. Inter-batch and intra-batch coefficients of variation across four validation runs (LLOQ, LQC, MQC and HQC) was less than 7.5%. The accuracy determined at these levels was within +/-4.2% in terms of relative error. The method was applied to a pilot bioequivalence study of 500 mg griseofulvin tablet in six healthy human subjects under fed condition.

Fast-dissolving microparticles fail to show improved oral bioavailability.

Oral dosage forms are the preferred means of delivering drugs for systemic absorption. However, development problems occur for drugs with poor water solubility and/or gastrointestinal permeability. It is generally believed that the in-vivo bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs from Class II of the Biopharmaceutics Classification System can be improved by increasing the dissolution rate. We have attempted to increase the in-vivo oral bioavailability of a model Class II drug (griseofulvin) by preparing rapidly-dissolving particles. The solvent-diffusion method was used to prepare particles with hydrophilic surfactants (Brij 76/Tween 80 surfactant blend) and in-vivo studies were conducted in rats. The griseofulvin particles produced were bipyramidal in habit with a particle size of 2.18 +/- 0.12 microm; they contained crystalline drug and a relatively large proportion (12% w/w) of hydrophilic surfactant. The latter and the small particle size ensured rapid particle dispersion and dissolution in-vitro. Thus, within 30 min of the in-vitro dissolution test, the bipyramidal particles had released approximately 70% of drug compared with approximately 10% from the starting material (particle size 12.61 +/- 1.11 microm). However, the rapid and increased drug dissolution in-vitro was not translated to rapid and enhanced absorption in-vivo, and the oral bioavailability of the model drug was found to be the same from the control and from the bipyramidal particles. The poor in-vivo performance of the bipyramidal particles showed that although the dissolution rate of a Class II drug is thought to be a good indicator of its in-vivo bioavailability, this is not always the case.

Enhancement of the dissolution rate and oral absorption of a poorly water soluble drug by formation of surfactant-containing microparticles.

The slow dissolution rate exhibited by poorly water-soluble drugs is a major challenge in the drug development process. Following oral administration, drugs with slow dissolution rates generally show erratic and incomplete absorption which may lead to therapeutic failure. The aim of this study was to improve the dissolution rate and subsequently the oral absorption and bioavailability of a model poorly water-soluble drug. Microparticles containing the model drug (griseofulvin) were produced by spray drying the drug in the absence/presence of a hydrophilic surfactant. Poloxamer 407 was chosen as the hydrophilic surfactant to improve the particle wetting and hence the dissolution rate. The spray dried particles were characterized and in vitro dissolution studies and in vivo absorption studies were carried out. The results obtained showed that the dissolution rate and absolute oral bioavailability of the spray dried griseofulvin/Poloxamer 407 particles were significantly increased compared to the control. Although spray drying griseofulvin alone increased the drug's in vitro dissolution rate, no significant improvement was seen in the absolute oral bioavailability when compared to the control. Therefore, it is believed that the better wetting characteristics conferred by the hydrophilic surfactant was responsible for the enhanced dissolution rate and absolute oral bioavailability of the model drug.

High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of methoxsalen in plasma after liquid-solid extraction.

An improved method suitable for the determination of 8-methoxypsoralen in the range 50-1500 ng/ml in the plasma of psoriatic patients undergoing PUVA (psoralens and long-wave ultraviolet light) therapy is proposed. A 5-ml aliquot of plasma containing sodium citrate as anticoagulant was centrifuged, griseofulvin was added as internal standard and the sample was denatured with acetonitrile. The supernatant was applied to C18 cartridges and 8-methoxypsoralen was eluted with methanol. The evaporated eluate was reconstituted in the mobile phase for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and applied to the HPLC column: mobile phase, acetonitrile-0.01 M phosphoric acid (34:66); flow-rate, 1 ml/min; temperature, 40 degrees C; column, Spherisorb 5 ODS, 100 mm x 4.6 mm I.D., 5 microns particle size; UV detection at 248 nm; detection limit, 15 ng/ml of plasma.

Importance of bile acid structure in amelioration of griseofulvin-induced murine protoporphyric hepatopathy.

This study investigated the effects of bile acid structure on griseofulvin-induced murine hepatopathy and explored the mechanism(s) of cholestasis in this model of protoporphyria. Mice were fed pulverized chow with cholate, chenodeoxycholate, or ursodeoxycholate, with or without griseofulvin. After 1 to 4 weeks, bile flow, bile acid excretion and composition, biliary protoporphyrin excretion, hepatic protoporphyrin contents, liver histology, and griseofulvin plasma concentrations were determined. Additionally, bile acid absorption was measured. Griseofulvin induced a progressive increase in liver weight, hepatic protoporphyrin content, and histopathologic evidence of cholestasis. Biliary protoporphyrin excretion increased and pigmented gallbladder microliths developed. Bile flow and bile acid excretion fell in relation to liver weight but not in relation to body weight. Cholic acid augmented biliary protoporphyrin excretion, markedly reduced hepatic protoporphyrin content, and obviated the development of intrahepatic biliary thrombi. Ursodeoxycholate and chenodeoxycholate both reduced biliary protoporphyrin excretion. This was associated with bile acid compositional changes, particularly a fall in cholic acid. Although histopathologic abnormalities were not altered, these bile acids reduced hepatic protoporphyrin contents. Bile acid treatments with griseofulvin all increased bile flow and bile acid excretion relative to controls, but differences in the relationship of bile flow to bile acid structure on protoporphyrin disposition. They document biliary excretion as the principal mode of cholic acid amelioration of griseofulvin-induced hepatopathy. They also suggest distinctive roles for griseofulvin and protoporphyrin in the generation of the cholestasis.

The bioavailability of griseofulvin from microsized and ultramicrosized tablets in nonfasting volunteers.

Tablets of either microsized or ultramicrosized griseofulvin (2 x 125 mg), were administered to 6 healthy volunteers of either sex just before a breakfast containing 4o g. of butter. The plasma concentration of griseofulvin were determined 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 24, and 32 h. after dosing using a spectrofluorometric method, and pharmacokinetic parameters (Cp max, t max, AUC 0 - greater than 32) were calculated. These parameters were found to be; Cp max = 0.0.681 +/- 0.1 mu/ml, t max. = 2.51 +/- 0.33 h. and AUC = 14.14 +/- 2.33 micrograms h/ml for microsized tablets and Cp max = 0.80 +/- 0.08 +/- g/ml, t max = 2.44 +/- 0.54 and AUC = 16.25 +/- 1.16 microgram h/ml for ultramicrosized tablets. Our results show that mean peak plasma level and AUC (0 - greater than 32) are only slightly higher for the ultramicrosized preparation and the time to peak plasma level is similar in two preparations. Therefore, it is concluded that coadministration of griseofulvin with food will tend to reduce the difference between the bioavailability of the two type of preparations.

Human plasma and skin blister fluid levels of griseofulvin after its repeated administration.

Griseofulvin was administered orally to 6 healthy volunteers for 6 days. The subjects received 500 mg of a microsize formulation and 330 mg of an ultramicrosize formulation, according to a cross-over design. The drug was determined in plasma, suction blister fluid (SBF) and cantharides blister fluid (CBF) following the last dose. Urinary excretion of the main metabolites 6-demethylgriseofulvin (6-DMG) and its glucuronic acid conjugate was also measured. The pharmacokinetic parameters were compared with those obtained from a recent single dose experiment. On repeated administration, the bioavailability of griseofulvin was significantly lower from the microsize formulation; the urinary recovery of total 6-DMG was 33.8% versus 53.6% on administration of the ultramicrosize material. Bioavailability was reduced as compared to ingestion of a single dose. The reduction was more prominent following the microsize (36%) than the ultramicrosize (17%) formulation. Penetration into skin blister fluid was not altered as compared to the single dose experiment. Relative areas under the blister fluid-time curves amounted to 51% (SBF) and 80% (CBF) of the area under the plasma level-time curve. The concentration of unbound griseofulvin in these body fluids was identical throughout the entire dosage interval. Unbound griseofulvin levels were low in comparison with the minimum inhibitory concentrations for strains of trichophyton and microsporum.

Human plasma and skin blister fluid levels of griseofulvin following a single oral dose.

Griseofulvin and 6-demethylgriseofulvin (6-DMG) in plasma, suction blister fluid (SBF) and cantharides blister fluid (CBF) and urinary excretion of 6-DMG, were evaluated following administration of single oral doses of an ultramicrosize and a microsize formulation of griseofulvin to 6 healthy volunteers. The bioavailability of griseofulvin was higher following the ultramicrosize formulation when 64% of the dose was recovered (via metabolites) versus 52% after the microsize preparation. Penetration into skin blister fluid was delayed as compared to plasma levels; the peak concentration in plasma was observed at 3-4 h, whereas griseofulvin in CBF increased up to 6 h. The terminal half-live was calculated from plasma levels to 9.3 h. The half-lives calculated from SBF and CBF concentrations were 9.2 and 9.8 h, respectively, (n = 5). In plasma 84% of griseofulvin was bound to proteins, predominantly to albumin; binding in SBF and CBF was 72 and 82%, respectively. 3 h after drug administration the free concentration in plasma significantly exceeded the free concentrations in SBF and CBF. Distribution equilibrium between plasma and skin blister fluid was observed after 27 h. Thus, during chronic administration, the plasma griseofulvin level should reflect its concentration in the target organ.

Protoporphyrin hepatopathy. Effects of cholic acid ingestion in murine griseofulvin-induced protoporphyria.

Short-term effects of cholic acid ingestion on hepatic accumulation, fecal excretion, and blood levels of protoporphyrin were studied in vivo in griseofulvin-induced protoporphyric mice. Experimental mice that received feed with 2% griseofulvin and 0.5% cholic acid were compared with control mice that received feed with 2% griseofulvin for 4 wk. Five mice from each group were assessed each week for liver and blood porphyrin levels. Fecal protoporphyrin was compared weekly in the total pooled output of each population. Mean protoporphyrin levels were significantly lower for liver (P less than 0.0001), erythrocytes (P less than 0.05), and plasma (P less than 0.05), and higher for feces (P less than 0.001) for the mice that were fed cholic acid. Microscopic protoporphyrin deposits, inflammation, necrosis, and dysplasia were more severe in livers of control mice. A second experimental design compared four regimens in the feed given to all mice after 1-wk induction with 2% griseofulvin: (a) 0.5% cholic acid, (b) no adulterant, (c) 2% griseofulvin and 0.5% cholic acid, and (d) 2% griseofulvin. No difference in protoporphyrin removal from livers of mice in groups 1 and 2 was observed after 1 and 2 wk of these regimens. The apparent reduction in hepatic protoporphyrin content in mice of group 3 as compared with group 4 at weeks 2 and 3 was not significant at P less than 0.05. These data suggest that in selected circumstances, hepatic protoporphyrin secretion may be enhanced in protoporphyric disease states by bile salt supplementation.

Arterial and venous blood sampling in pharmacokinetic studies: griseofulvin.

The pharmacokinetics of griseofulvin were evaluated simultaneously using both arterial and venous plasma in three dogs and one rabbit after a rapid bolus intravenous dosing. Initial arterial-venous ratios 20 sec after injection were the highest and ranged from 15- to 752-fold for dogs; the ratio was 3240-fold for the rabbit. Both curves decayed paralleling each other at the terminal phase with the venous levels higher than arterial levels by 14-43 and 8.4% for the dogs and the rabbit, respectively. The use of the instantaneous input principle was found to overestimate the total area under the plasma level-time curve by as much as 166%. An exponential term with a negative coefficient was used to account for the short and steep rising phase of plasma levels after injection. Detailed analyses showed significant differences in various calculated pharmacokinetic parameters based on arterial or venous data. The present study exemplifies the need for careful assessment and interpretation of classical pharmacokinetic parameters. It appeared that short intravenous infusion rather than the instantaneous or rapid bolus intravenous injection should be preferred for routine pharmacokinetic studies.

Bioavailability of griseofulvin from tablets in humans and the correlation with its dissolution rate.

Dissolution rates of 10 commercial microsize griseofulvin tablets and one ultramicrosize griseofulvin tablet were preliminarily determined in 18 liters of pH 7.2 phosphate buffer and in 900 ml of 40% dimethylformamide as test media. Addition of dimethylformamide affected the dissolution behavior of the formulations. The products, three microsize and one ultramicrosize, were selected for further studies on the bioavailability in humans and dissolution. Significant differences among the formulations were found in serum levels Cmax, and AUC47.5 hr, but not in AUC infinity and tmax. The maximum difference of Cmax was approximately 40%. The ultramicrosize product showed lower Cmax and serum levels at earlier sampling times than two microsize products. The dissolution rates determined under sink and nonsink conditions without pretreatment significantly correlated with the serum level at 1 hr but not with the other in vivo parameters. Only the dissolution rate determined by the sink method with pretreatment with a small quantity of water (1.0 ml) and plastic beads significantly correlated with serum levels at 3 and 5 hr, Cmax, and AUC 47.5 hr.

Effect of arterial-venous plasma concentration differences on the determination of mean residence time of drugs in the body.

Using dogs or rabbits as model animals the effect of arterial-venous plasma concentration differences of propranolol, procainamide, griseofulvin, furosemide and theophylline on the determination of mean residence time (MRT) following intravenous administration was evaluated using standard methods. The MRT values calculated from femoral venous data were always higher (ranging from 1.5 to 109%) than those from femoral arterial data. The differences were mainly attributed to the additional residence time of drugs in the sampling tissue (leg). From a physiological point of view it appears generally more logical to assume that only the MRT calculated from arterial data using conventional methods represents the "true" MRT in the body. The potential pharmacokinetic significance of the present findings is discussed. New approaches, which eliminates the effect of arterial-venous plasma concentration differences on the MRT determination, are proposed.

Comparative bioavailability of a microsize and ultramicrosize griseofulvin formulation in man.

The bioavailability of 500 mg of a microsize formulation of griseofulvin has been compared to two new ultramicrosize griseofulvin formulations, two 165 mg tablets and a 330 mg tablet, in sixteen healthy, male, volunteers in a randomized crossover study design. Based on the griseofulvin plasma levels measured at specified times over a 48-hour period, the major bioavailability parameters (i.e., area under plasma concentration-time curve, maximum plasma concentration, and time to reach maximum plasma concentration) were determined and statistically evaluated. The results showed that one 330 mg ultramicrosize tablet is bioequivalent to two 165 mg ultramicrosize griseofulvin tablets and that either ultramicrosize griseofulvin dosage regimen is bioequivalent to 500 mg of the microsize griseofulvin formulation.