Low-Field NMR Study of Shortcake Biscuits with Cricket Powder, and Their Nutritional and Physical Characteristics.

The growing human population renders challenges for the future supply of food products with high nutritional value. Here, we enhanced the functional and nutritional value of biscuits, a popular sweet snack, by replacing the wheat flour with 2%, 6%, or 10% (w/w) cricket powder. Consumer acceptance ratings for reference and 2% augmented cookies were comparable, whereas the higher levels of enhancement received inferior consumer scores. This relatively small change in biscuit recipe provided significant and nutritionally desirable enhancements in the biscuits, observed in a series of analyses. An increase in the protein content was observed, including essential amino acids, as well as minerals and fat. This conversion also affected the physical properties of the biscuits, including hardness, and water molecular dynamics measured by 1H NMR. Cricket powder-augmented biscuits join the line of enhanced, functionally superior food products. This and similar food augmentation provide a viable scenario to meet the human food demands in the future.

Investigating edible insects as a sustainable food source: nutritional value and techno-functional and physiological properties.

This work is aimed to evaluate the nutritional composition, and the techno-functional and in vitro physiological properties of flours made using six different insect species and the sensorial feasibility of including them in bakery products. The insect flours exhibited high protein and fat contents as their main components, highlighting the presence of chitin in ant samples. The techno-functional properties showed high oil holding, swelling, and emulsifying capacities in all the analysed insect flours, whereas their bulk density, hydration properties, and foaming capacity showed average values and no gelation capacity. Moreover, these edible insect flours exhibited effective hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidaemia properties, which together with their high antioxidant capacity are associated with beneficial in vitro physiological effects. The beetle and caterpillar flours stand out in these properties, and thus were selected to make a cupcake. The sensory evaluation confirmed that the edible beetle powder can be successfully included in baked goods to provide excellent sensory properties and very high acceptance. Thus, these insect flours may be of great interest to the food industry as a healthy source of protein, exerting a positive impact on functional and sensory food properties, and with a potential role in the prevention of diseases associated with hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidaemia.

Allergenicity assessment of the edible cricket Acheta domesticus in terms of thermal and gastrointestinal processing and IgE cross-reactivity with shrimp.

The allergenic potency of the cricket Acheta domesticus, a promising edible insect, has never been assessed. This work aims to study the immunoreactivity of Acheta domesticus, and its cross-reactivity with the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, assessing the effect of cooking and gastrointestinal digestion on their allergenic properties. Different cricket proteins were detected by immunoblotting with shrimp-allergic patients' sera. Tropomyosin was identified as the most relevant IgE-binding protein, and its cross-reactivity with shrimp tropomyosin was demonstrated by ELISA. While shrimp tropomyosin showed scarce stability to gastric digestion, cricket tropomyosin withstood the whole digestion process. The sarcoplasmic calcium-binding protein, specifically detected in shrimp, showed exceptional stability to gastrointestinal digestion. IgE-binding proteins in a model of enriched baked products were partially protected from proteolysis. In conclusion, the ingestion of A. domesticus proteins poses serious concerns to the Crustacean-allergic population. The high stability of tropomyosin may represent a risk of primary sensitization and clinical cross-reactivity.

Pseudovitamin B12 and factor S are the predominant corrinoid compounds in edible cricket products.

In this study, we determined the vitamin B12 content of commercially-available edible insect products using a bioassay based on Lactobacillus delbrueckii ATCC 7830. Although the vitamin content of giant water bug, bee larva, grasshopper, and weaver ant products was low, we found that diving beetle and cricket products contained relatively high amounts of vitamin B12 (approximately 89.5 and 65.8 µg/100 g dry weight, respectively). In the cricket products most widely circulated as foods, specific corrinoid (vitamin B12) compounds were extracted and identified using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Despite the bioassay detecting high vitamin B12 content (approximately 50-75 µg/100 g dry weight) in these cricket products, UPLC-MS/MS analysis indicated that pseudovitamin B12 and 2-methylmercaptoadenyl cobamide (also known as factor S) were actually the predominant corrinoid compounds (~74% and ~21%, respectively), with authentic vitamin B12 making up only 5% of total corrinoids.

Gryllus bimaculatus extract protects against lipopolysaccharide and palmitate-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines and inflammasome formation.

Inflammation and the inflammasome complex formation are associated with numerous diseases, and palmitates or lipopolysaccharides (LPS) have been identified as potential links between these disorders. Recently, edible insects such as the Gryllus bimaculatus (GB) and the larva of Tenebrio molitor have emerged as alternative food sources. In the present study, the effect of GB on LPS­ or palmitate­induced production of inflammatory cytokines, the formation of the inflammasome complex, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell death was investigated in RAW264.7 cells. The results revealed that GB extract downregulated the production of inflammatory cytokines (such as TNF­α, IL­1ß and IL­6). Since the role of the MAP kinase and NF­κB signalling pathways in the production of inflammatory cytokines is well established, the translocation of p65 into the nucleus and the phosphorylation of IκB and MAP kinases were further examined. Both these processes were upregulated following LPS and palmitate treatment, but they were inhibited by the GB extract. Moreover, GB extract decreased LPS/palmitate­induced inflammasome complex formation (assessed via analysing the levels of the apoptosis­associated speck­like protein containing a caspase­recruitment domain, NOD­like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3, cleaved caspase­1 and IL­1ß), the generation of ROS, ER stress and cell death. Treatment with SB203580 (a p38 inhibitor), SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor) and pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate ammonium (an NF­κB inhibitor) decreased the production of inflammatory cytokines, as well as helped in the recovery of LPS/palmitate­induced cell death. Overall, GB extract served an inhibitory role in LPS/palmitate­induced inflammation via inhibiting the MAP kinase and NF­κB signalling pathways, inflammasome complex formation, ROS generation, ER stress and cell death.

Development of ultra-high performance liquid chromatographic and fluorescent method for the analysis of insect chitin.

A precise quantification of insect chitin is needed in order to avoid overestimation of crude protein due to chitin-bound nitrogen. An UPLC/FLR method was optimized and validated for the determination of glucosamine (GlcN) hydrolyzed from chitin in insect materials. The method was applied for quantifying the chitin content in mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) and crickets (Acheta domesticus). A baseline separation was obtained using an Acquity HSS T3 C18 column, with an external calibration curve of excellent linearity, and a low limit of detection and quantification of GlcN. Even though the recovery of GlcN from spiked cricket material was slightly lower compared to that using spectrophotometric method, the UPLC/FLR method proved a sensitive and specific method of quantification of insect chitin. Chitin contents in T. molitor and A. domesticus were 4.6 ± 0.1% and 4.5 ± 0.0% on dry matter basis, respectively. Less than 0.01% of chitin was present in insect protein-enriched fractions extracted with 0.1 N NaCl at pH 10.

Functionality of Cricket and Mealworm Hydrolysates Generated after Pretreatment of Meals with High Hydrostatic Pressures.

The low consumer acceptance to entomophagy in Western society remains the strongest barrier of this practice, despite these numerous advantages. More positively, it was demonstrated that the attractiveness of edible insects can be enhanced by the use of insect ingredients. Currently, insect ingredients are mainly used as filler agents due to their poor functional properties. Nevertheless, new research on insect ingredient functionalities is emerging to overcome these issues. Recently, high hydrostatic pressure processing has been used to improve the functional properties of proteins. The study described here evaluates the functional properties of two commercial insect meals (Gryllodes sigillatus and Tenebrio molitor) and their respective hydrolysates generated by Alcalase®, conventionally and after pressurization pretreatment of the insect meals. Regardless of the insect species and treatments, water binding capacity, foaming and gelation properties did not improve after enzymatic hydrolysis. The low emulsion properties after enzymatic hydrolysis were due to rapid instability of emulsion. The pretreatment of mealworm meal with pressurization probably induced protein denaturation and aggregation phenomena which lowered the degree of hydrolysis. As expected, enzymatic digestion (with and without pressurization) increased the solubility, reaching values close to 100%. The pretreatment of mealworm meal with pressure further improved its solubility compared to control hydrolysate, while pressurization pretreatment decreased the solubility of cricket meal. These results may be related to the impact of pressurization on protein structure and therefore to the generation of different peptide compositions and profiles. The oil binding capacity also improved after enzymatic hydrolysis, but further for pressure-treated mealworm hydrolysate. Despite the moderate effect of pretreatment by high hydrostatic pressures, insect protein hydrolysates demonstrated interesting functional properties which could potentially facilitate their use in the food industry.

Identification and Characterization of Edible Cricket Peptides on Hypertensive and Glycemic In Vitro Inhibition and Their Anti-Inflammatory Activity on RAW 264.7 Macrophage Cells.

Recent studies continue to demonstrate the potential of edible insects as a protein base to obtain bioactive peptides applicable for functional food development. This study aimed at identifying antihypertensive, anti-glycemic, and anti-inflammatory peptides derived from the in vitro gastrointestinal digests of cricket protein hydrolysates. After sequential fractionation, the protein digest subfraction containing the lowest molecular weight (<0.5 kDa), hydrophobic (C18) and cationic peptides (IEX) was found responsible for the most bioactivity. The cationic peptide fraction significantly reduced (p < 0.05) α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity in vitro, and also inhibited the expression of NF-κB in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. A total of 28 peptides were identified with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and de novo sequencing from the potent fraction. Three novel peptides YKPRP, PHGAP, and VGPPQ were chosen for the molecular docking studies. PHGAP and VGPPQ exhibited a higher degree of non-covalent interactions with the enzyme active site residues and binding energies comparable to captopril. Results from this study demonstrate the bioactive potential of edible cricket peptides, especially as ACE inhibitors.

Comparison of cricket diet with peanut-based and milk-based diets in the recovery from protein malnutrition in mice and the impact on growth, metabolism and immune function.

Some evidence suggests that edible insects could be used to treat malnutrition following protein deficiency. However, additional studies are needed to better assess the potential of edible insects as a therapeutic food supplement and their long-term impact on recovery from malnutrition. The goals of this study were to investigate the effectiveness of a cricket-based diet in recovery from protein-malnutrition in early life, and to compare cricket protein to more traditional sources used for food fortification and supplementation. Protein-malnutrition was induced by administration of an isocaloric hypoprotein diet (5% protein calories) in young male mice for two weeks during puberty, followed by a six-week recovery period using a cricket-, peanut- or milk-based diet. We examined the impact of protein-malnutrition and subsequent recovery on body weight, growth and select biomarkers of inflammation and metabolism. Protein-malnutrition resulted in growth retardation, downregulation of inflammatory markers in spleen tissue, decreased levels of serum triglycerides, and elevated serum levels of leptin and adiponectin. The cricket-based diet performed equally well as the peanut- and milk-based diets in body weight recovery, but there were differences in immune and metabolic markers among the different recovery diets. Results suggest edible crickets may provide an alternative nutrient-dense protein source with relatively low environmental demands for combating the effects of early-life malnutrition compared to more traditional supplementation and fortification sources. Additional investigations are needed to examine the short and long term impacts of different recovery diets on metabolism and immune function.

Sexual selection and population divergence III: Interspecific and intraspecific variation in mating signals.

A major challenge for studying the role of sexual selection in divergence and speciation is understanding the relative influence of different sexually selected signals on those processes in both intra- and interspecific contexts. Different signals may be more or less susceptible to co-option for species identification depending on the balance of sexual and ecological selection acting upon them. To examine this, we tested three predictions to explain geographic variation in long- versus short-range sexual signals across a 3,500 + km transect of two related Australian field cricket species (Teleogryllus spp.): (a) selection for species recognition, (b) environmental adaptation and (c) stochastic divergence. We measured male calling song and male and female cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) in offspring derived from wild populations, reared under common garden conditions. Song clearly differentiated the species, and no hybrids were observed suggesting that hybridization is rare or absent. Spatial variation in song was not predicted by geography, genetics or climatic factors in either species. In contrast, CHC divergence was strongly associated with an environmental gradient supporting the idea that the climatic environment selects more directly upon these chemical signals. In light of recently advocated models of diversification via ecological selection on secondary sexual traits, the different environmental associations we found for song and CHCs suggest that the impact of ecological selection on population divergence, and how that influences speciation, might be different for acoustic versus chemical signals.

Consumer attitudes toward entomophagy before and after evaluating cricket (Acheta domesticus)-based protein powders.

In recent years, the use of insects in food products has increased. Insects are a sustainable ingredient that is high in protein. However, consumption in Western countries is low, and this may be due to poor sensory qualities, expense, availability, and food neophobia. The objectives of this study were to determine Atlantic Canadian consumers' attitudes toward entomophagy and to assess consumers' perception of cricket-based protein powders. There were two phases to this study: in phase one, participants (n = 107) completed a survey about their attitudes toward consuming insects (Specific Beliefs and Attitudes about Insect Consumption Scale created by Ruby, Rozin, & Chan 2015), and in the second phase, participants (n = 102) were asked to evaluate four different protein powders (two contained crickets) using 9-point hedonic scales and a CATA questionnaire. Then, the participants were again asked to complete the aforementioned survey. Before consuming cricket protein powder, most participants thought that insects were a sustainable protein source, but also thought that the consumption of insects was undesirable. However, after consuming cricket protein powder, the participants were willing to buy cricket powder and were willing to recommend it to their friends. For insect consumption to become acceptable in the Western world, it will need to be integrated slowly to reduce consumers' fear and negative attitudes. Protein powders are consumed by many people in the Western world and are an excellent candidate to allow for the integration of insects into their diets. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study demonstrated that consumers in Atlantic Canada are more willing to eat insects after having tried them in protein powders. Additionally, protein powders represent a familiar context for consumers and allow for the acceptable integration of cricket powder. Consumers are willing to buy and recommend crickets to their friends after consuming them (in a processed form); however, they still have concerns that insects may carry harmful microbes and toxins.

Extracts from the edible insects Acheta domesticus and Tenebrio molitor with improved fatty acid profile due to ultrasound assisted or pressurized liquid extraction.

Extracts from the edible insects Acheta domesticus and Tenebrio molitor were obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and pressurized-liquid extraction (PLE) using ethanol (E) or ethanol:water (E:W). Extraction yield, fatty acid profile, nutritional impact and cholesterol content were determined and compared with the initial insects. The highest extraction yield corresponded to PLE-T. molitor extracts. A decrease in total saturated fatty acid (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) contents, and an increase in the total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content were observed for both UAE-E:W insect extracts, due to an enrichment in linoleic acid. The lipid indices (PUFA/SFA ratio, atherogenic and thrombogenic indices) for both UAE-E:W extracts were significantly improved compared with the initial insects. Although either extraction procedure led to cholesterol enrichment, the UAE-E:W conditions favoured the lowest concentration. Therefore, insects extracts with improved fatty acid profile can be selectively obtained, being UAE-E:W conditions preferred from the nutritional point of view.

Characterization, antioxidant activity, and inhibitory effect on pancreatic lipase of extracts from the edible insects Acheta domesticus and Tenebrio molitor.

Extracts from the edible insects Acheta domesticus and Tenebrio molitor were obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and pressurized-liquid extraction (PLE) using ethanol (E) or ethanol:water (E:W). Characterization by GC-MS was performed and total phenolic compounds (TPC), antioxidant activity (DPPH) and pancreatic lipase inhibitory capacity were assayed. Most extracts, mainly ethanolic extracts, predominantly presented lipids as free fatty acids, followed by aminoacids, organic acids, carbohydrates, hydrocarbons and sterols. The UAE-E:W extracts were different, being characterized by organic acids for A. domesticus, or aminoacids for T. molitor. All the extracts exhibited antioxidant activity, which correlated with TPC values, being the E:W extracts the most effective. All the extracts showed inhibitory activity of lipase, although those from T. molitor and extracted by PLE were the most effective. Therefore, bioactive insect extracts can be selectively obtained by advanced methods of extraction, being aqueous ethanol preferred for antioxidant activity and PLE for inhibitory lipase activity.

Anti-Photoaging Effects of Four Insect Extracts by Downregulating Matrix Metalloproteinase Expression via Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase-Dependent Signaling.

Insects are some of the most diverse organisms on the planet, and have potential value as food or medicine. Here, we investigated the photoprotective properties of insect extracts using hairless mice. The alleviating wrinkle formation effects of insect extracts were evaluated by histological skin analysis to determine epidermal thickness and identify collagen fiber damage. Moreover, we investigated the ability of the insect extracts to alleviate UVB-induced changes to matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), oxidative damage, the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathway, and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Insect extracts reduced UVB-induced skin winkles, epidermal thickening, and collagen breakdown, and alleviated the epidermal barrier dysfunction induced by UVB, including the increased loss of transepidermal water. Moreover, the expression of skin hydration-related markers such as hyaluronic acid, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß), and procollagen was upregulated in the group treated with insect extracts compared to the vehicle-treated group after ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure. UVB irradiation also upregulated the expression of MMPs, the phosphorylation of MAPKs, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, which were all attenuated by the oral administration of insect extracts. These results indicate the photoaging protection effect of insect extracts and the underlying mechanism, demonstrating the potential for clinical development.

Nutritional value, protein and peptide composition of edible cricket powders.

There are various indicators, including FAO and EU sources, that edible insects could become one of the solutions to the problem of global food supply. This report was aimed at improving the knowledge on powdered crickets (Acheta domesticus). The analyses of the basic nutritional composition revealed that cricket powders were rich in protein (42.0-45.8% of dry matter) and fat (23.6-29.1% of dry matter). In terms of mineral content, CPs were rich in Ca, Mg and Fe. Most of all, the levels of Cu, Mn and Zn were especially high (2.33-4.51, 4.1-12.5, 12.8-21.8 mg/100 g of dry matter, respectively). Furthermore, the analyses into the proteins indicated that the cricket powders were treated with high temperatures and allowed the determination of four cricket-specific peptides that showed sufficient thermostability to serve as markers for authentication.

Determination of vitamin B12 in four edible insect species by immunoaffinity and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography.

Insects are rich in major nutrients, such as protein and fat. Recently, minor nutrients like vitamins have become the subjects of interest in insects. Hence, this study reports on the development and validation of a method for the determination of vitamin B12 in mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larvae), cricket (Gryllus assimilis), grasshopper (Locusta migratoria) and cockroach (Shelfordella lateralis), using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography approach with preliminary immunoaffinity chromatography sample preparation. The method was validated regarding linearity, specificity, accuracy and precision, as well as limits of detection/quantification, and was found to be satisfactory for the desired application. Found levels of vitamin B12 were 1.08 µg/100 g for mealworm, 2.88 µg/100 g for cricket, 0.84 µg/100 g for grasshopper, and 13.2 µg/100 g dry weight for cockroach, representing the first validated report on the content of vitamin B12 in edible insects. Observed interferences are likely caused by the presence of pseudovitamin B12.

Effect of sex on the nutritional value of house cricket, Acheta domestica L.

Since January 2018, insects have been recognised as novel foods in the EU, but their nutritional value varies, and factors affecting their nutritional composition have been debated. We investigated the effect of sex on the nutritional value and chemical composition of the house cricket (Acheta domestica L.). Both sexes were rich in protein and lipids. The proximate composition was partly influenced by sex; females contained a significantly higher amount of lipids (18.3-21.7 vs 12.9-16.1 g/100 g dry matter, p = 0.0001) and fewer proteins than males (61.2-64.9 vs 66.3-69.6 g/100 g dry matter, p = 0.0001). Males contained more chitin (p = 0.0015) and nitrogen chains (p = 0.0003) than females. Only the ash (p = 0.4314) and nitrogen-free extract (p = 0.4871) were uninfluenced by sex. Furthermore, nutrient quality expressed as essential amino acid (72.3-77.1), thrombogenicity (1.22-1.45), and atherogenicity indices (0.53-0.58) did not differ between sexes (p > 0.05).

Gut health and serum growth hormone levels of broiler chickens fed dietary chitin and chitosan from cricket and shrimp.

Growth hormones (GH) alone does not explain the growth rate in the chicken as growth in an animal is multi-factorial. Normal morphology of the intestinal villus and crypt, with adequate regulation of intestinal nutrient transporters, is essential to a healthy gut. Nutrition plays a significant role in gut health management, but information on the effect of dietary chitin and chitosan on gut morphology, gene expression of nutrient transporter, and serum levels of GH in broiler chickens is scanty. Thus, this study aimed at evaluating the comparative effect of dietary chitin and chitosan from cricket and shrimp on the small intestinal morphology, relative gene expression of intestinal nutrient transporters and serum level of GH in the broiler. A total of 150 day-old male Cobb500 broiler chicks were randomly allotted to one of the five treatment groups (n = 30). Treatment 1 was fed basal diet only, treatments 2 to 5 were fed a basal diet with 0.5 g cricket chitin, cricket chitosan, shrimp chitin, and shrimp chitosan, respectively, per kg diet. At days 21 and 42, duodenal and jejunal samples were assessed for structural morphology and jejunum for the relative gene expression of PepT1, EAAT3, SGLT1, and SGLT5 using quantitative real-time PCR. Results bared that dietary cricket chitosan and shrimp chitosan significantly (P < 0.05) improved jejunal villus height and reduced crypt depth without improving the body weight (BW). The gut morphology of birds under cricket chitin was poor and significantly (P < 0.05) different from other treated groups. Both the dietary chitin and chitosan at day 21 and only dietary chitosan at day 42 significantly (P < 0.05) down-regulated the relative mRNA expression of PepT1, EAAT3, SGLT1, and SGLT5 of broiler chickens. Treated groups differ non-significantly at both phases, while cricket chitin numerically increased the relative expression of PepT1, EAAT3, and SGLT1. Therefore, the potential of cricket chitin to improve BW and to up-regulate nutrient transporters is worthy of further exploration.

ATR FTIR Spectroscopic Study on Insect Body Surface Lipids Rich in Methylene-Interrupted Diene.

To protect themselves, insects cover their bodies with what is called cuticular lipid. The cuticular lipid of an American cockroach has a unique lipid content; the most abundant is a cis-alkadiene, cis, cis-6,9-heptacosadiene, amounting to about 70%, which is followed by a branched alkane 3-methylpentacosane. In order to clarify the structural features of the unique lipid composition below the critical temperature, the cuticular lipid was studied by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy in combination with an attenuated total reflection (ATR) sampling technique. The infrared spectra measured on an extracted lipid sample at 20 °C suggested that the lipid keeps an appreciable level of conformational and lateral packing regularity, in spite of a high cis-unsaturated lipid content, and also a highly disordered condition around the methyl terminals and cis-olefin groups. The CH2 scissoring and the CH2 rocking regions showed the characteristics of the O⊥ subcell. The same characteristics were observed also by in situ measurements on a forewing of the American cockroach. Combining the spectral features of these bands and the physicochemical properties of each component, it can be inferred that saturated lipids form highly ordered domains within the liquid containing the cis, cis-diene as the main component. For comparison, the cuticular lipid of a male cricket, which consisted of many different hydrocarbons, including 15% of unsaturated hydrocarbons, showed a lower regularity both in the conformation and in the lateral packing of hydrocarbon chains. These results imply that not only the degree of cis-unsaturation but also the chemical structure diversity of hydrocarbons are the important factors to determine the physicochemical properties of cuticular lipid.

Evidence of vitamin D synthesis in insects exposed to UVb light.

Vertebrates obtain the prohormone vitamin D primarily by endogenous cutaneous synthesis under ultraviolet b (UVb) exposure. To date, endogenous synthesis of vitamin D in insects has never been investigated. In an initial experiment, we exposed four insect species which differ in ecology and morphology (migratory locusts, house crickets, yellow mealworms and black soldier fly larvae (BSFL)) to a low irradiance UVb source. In a second experiment we exposed these species to a higher UV irradiance, and in a third we tested the effect of exposure duration on vitamin D concentrations in yellow mealworms. Low irradiance UVb tended to increase vitamin D3 levels in house crickets, vitamin D2 levels in BSFL and vitamin D2 and D3 in yellow mealworms. Higher UVb irradiance increased vitamin D3 levels in all species but BSFL. Both BSFL and migratory locusts had increased vitamin D2 levels. Longer UVb exposure of yellow mealworms increased vitamin D2 and increased vitamin D3 until a plateau was reached at 6400 IU/kg. This study shows that insects can synthesize vitamin D de novo and that the amounts depend on UVb irradiance and exposure duration.