Estimated Medicaid Costs Associated with Hepatitis A During an Outbreak - West Virginia, 2018-2019.

Hepatitis A is a vaccine-preventable disease caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV). Transmission of the virus most commonly occurs through the fecal-oral route after close contact with an infected person. Widespread outbreaks of hepatitis A among persons who use illicit drugs (injection and noninjection drugs) have increased in recent years (1). The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends routine hepatitis A vaccination for children and persons at increased risk for infection or severe disease, and, since 1996, has recommended hepatitis A vaccination for persons who use illicit drugs (2). Vaccinating persons who are at-risk for HAV infection is a mainstay of the public health response for stopping ongoing person-to-person transmission and preventing future outbreaks (1). In response to a large hepatitis A outbreak in West Virginia, an analysis was conducted to assess total hepatitis A-related medical costs during January 1, 2018-July 31, 2019, among West Virginia Medicaid beneficiaries with a confirmed diagnosis of HAV infection. Among the analysis population, direct clinical costs ranged from an estimated $1.4 million to $5.6 million. Direct clinical costs among a subset of the Medicaid population with a diagnosis of a comorbid substance use disorder ranged from an estimated $1.0 million to $4.4 million during the study period. In addition to insight on preventing illness, hospitalization, and death, the results from this study highlight the potential financial cost jurisdictions might incur when ACIP recommendations for hepatitis A vaccination, especially among persons who use illicit drugs, are not followed (2).

Viral hepatitis and pregnancy.

The management of viral hepatitis in the setting of pregnancy requires special consideration. There are five liver-specific viruses (hepatitis A, B, C, D, E), each with unique epidemiology, tendency to chronicity, risk of liver complications and response to antiviral therapies. In the setting of pregnancy, the liver health of the mother, the influence of pregnancy on the clinical course of the viral infection and the effect of the virus or liver disease on the developing infant must be considered. Although all hepatitis viruses can harm the mother and the child, the greatest risk to maternal health and subsequently the fetus is seen with acute hepatitis A virus or hepatitis E virus infection during pregnancy. By contrast, the primary risks for hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis D virus are related to the severity of the underlying liver disease in the mother and the risk of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) for HBV and HCV. The prevention of MTCT is key to reducing the global burden of chronic viral hepatitis, and prevention strategies must take into consideration local health-care and socioeconomic challenges. This Review presents the epidemiology of acute and chronic viral hepatitis infection in pregnancy, the effect of pregnancy on the course of viral infection and, conversely, the influence of the viral infection on maternal and infant outcomes, including MTCT.

Twitter Communication During an Outbreak of Hepatitis A in San Diego, 2016-2018.

Objectives. To examine how and what information is communicated via social media during an infectious disease outbreak.Methods. In the context of the 2016 through 2018 hepatitis A outbreak in San Diego County, California, we used a grounded theory-based thematic analysis that employed qualitative and quantitative approaches to uncover themes in a sample of public tweets (n = 744) from Twitter, a primary platform used by key stakeholders to communicate to the public during the outbreak.Results. Tweets contained both general and hepatitis A-specific information related to the outbreak, restatements of policy and comments critical of government responses to the outbreak, information with the potential to shape risk perceptions, and expressions of concern regarding individuals experiencing homelessness and their role in spreading hepatitis A. We also identified misinformation and common channels of content driving themes that emerged in our sample.Conclusions. Public health professionals may identify real-time public risk perceptions and concerns via social media during an outbreak and target responses that fulfill the informational needs of those who seek direction and reassurance during times of uncertainty.

Management of viral hepatitis A, C, D and E in pregnancy.

Viral hepatitis can cause significant maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. Hepatitis A and E mainly present as acute hepatitis during pregnancy, while hepatitis C and D are usually found as chronic infection in pregnant women. Hepatitis A remains self-limiting during pregnancy while hepatitis E has a higher prevalence and manifests with a rigorous course in pregnant women. Screening of hepatitis C during pregnancy and its subsequent management during pregnancy are still a debatable topic. New treatments of hepatitis C and E require further evaluation for use in pregnancy. This review summarizes the prevalence, clinical manifestations, maternal, foetal and neonatal effects, and the management of hepatitis A, C, D and E viral infection during pregnancy.

[Hepatitis A outbreak in Galicia during 2016-2018]. / Brote de hepatitis A en Galicia durante 2016-2018.

OBJECTIVE: In Galicia, the incidence (I) of hepatitis A (HA) is low and the susceptibility is 51% in adults (18-64 years). Between 2016 and 2018 the cases increased, mainly in men. We intend to describe the cases of HA in Galicia during this outbreak period (PB), compare them with the pre-outbreak period (PPB), and the interventions performed. METHODS: Descriptive study of the cases of HA declared between 2016-18 (PB), compared to those from the previous period (2010-2015, PPB). Cases recorded in the mandatory notification system (general practice, hospitalization and microbiology) from 2010 to 2018 were included. For the pre-outbreak period 2010-2015 (PPB) it was calculated the average of cases/four-week period to compare observed/expected cases; the incidence (I) [cases/100,000 inhabitants (c/105h)] by sex and age was compared with the PPB through the Relative Risk (RR). It were sent messages with recommendations through men who have sex with men (MSM) reference websites. RESULTS: The outbreak lasted 80 weeks (september of 2016 to march of 2018). The incidence was 3 cases/105h in men and 0.5 cases/105h in women. Compared to the PPB, the RR-PB in men was 4.8 (95%CI=4-7) and 20.4 (95%CI=5-87) in 40-44 years. 42% of men declared to have relationships with other men (57% in 20-30 years). At the end of 2016, a message with recommendations (specially vaccination) was sent via Wapo (promoted to MSM through one of its reference websites), where 331 entries were registered. CONCLUSIONS: HA's incidence, in Galicia, increased in 2016-2018 by an outbreak in MSM. We found an increased susceptibility among young people which makes necessary to insist on the vaccination of groups at risk.

OBJETIVO: En Galicia, la incidencia (I) de hepatitis A (HA) es baja y la susceptibilidad es del 51% en adultos (18-64 años). Entre 2016 y 2018 se incrementaron los casos, fundamentalmente en hombres. El objetivo de este estudio fue describir los casos de HA en Galicia en este periodo de brote (PB), compararlos con el periodo pre-brote (PPB), y describir las intervenciones realizadas. METODOS: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo de los casos de HA declarados entre 2016-2018 (PB), comparados con los del periodo previo (2010-2015, PPB). Se incluyeron los casos del Sistema de Notificación Obligatoria (por atención primaria, hospitalaria y microbiología) de 2010 a 2018. Se calculó el canal epidémico para el PPB, como media de casos/cuatrisemana para comparar casos observados/esperados. La incidencia (I) [casos por cada 100.000 habitantes (c/105h)] por sexo y edad se comparó con el PPB mediante el Riesgo Relativo (RR). Se enviaron mensajes con recomendaciones específicas a través de webs de referencia para hombres que tenían sexo con hombres (HSH). RESULTADOS: El brote duró 20 cuatrisemanas (septiembre de 2016 a marzo de 2018). La incidencia fue de 3 casos por cada 100.000 habitantes en hombres y 0,5 casos por cada 100.000 habitantes en mujeres. Frente al PPB, el RR-PB en hombres fue 4,8 (IC95%=4-7) y 20,4 (IC95%=5-87) entre 40 y 44 años. El 42% de los hombres respondieron tener relaciones con otros hombres (el 57% entre 20 y 30 años). A finales de 2016 se envió a través de Wapo (una de las webs de referencia de HSH) un mensaje con recomendaciones (fundamentalmente sobre vacunación), registrándose 331 entradas. CONCLUSIONES: La incidencia de HA aumenta en Galicia en el período 2016-2018 por un brote en HSH. La susceptibilidad se incrementa entre jóvenes, lo que hace necesario insistir en la vacunación de los grupos de riesgo.

Challenges in Management of Hepatitis A Virus Epidemiological Transition in Mexico.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the most common cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. The virus is mainly transmitted via the fecaloral route and, the incidence of infection is closely related to low socioeconomic conditions and poor sanitation. Mexico, previously categorized an area of high endemicity for HAV infection, is undergoing epidemiological transition. However, a limited number of HAV-related scientific reports regarding to virus burden is available. According to the local government health agency (Secretarla de Salud, SSA in Spanish), from 1994 to 2017 a reduction in the incidence of hepatitis related to HAV has been reported. However, HAV is still the most common cause of viral hepatitis in the country, and the pediatric population is the most prone to be infected with this virus. The analysis of the SSA data reveals that most of the reported cases from 1994 to 2017 were found in highly industrialized states. This information contradicts the documented relationship between the highest prevalence of infection and the lowest socio-economic status, and supports the necessity of viral detection and notification of HAV cases. Moreover, in spite that four HAV vaccines are available in Mexico and universal vaccination has been shown to be beneficial in developing countries in terms of declining endemicity, HAV vaccination is not mandatory in Mexico. In this review, preventive strategies including appropriate diagnosis, vaccination and public health policies on the basis of the epidemiologic status of HAV in Mexico are discussed.

Autoimmune Hepatitis A Case Report and Literature Review.

INTRODUCTION: Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a cause of chronic liver disease. It is usually suspected based on clinical presentation and laboratory findings, but the diagnosis relies on the presence of specific autoantibodies and characteristic histology. Other unexplained findings should always prompt investigation for coexisting syndromes. CASE PRESENTATION: The patient is a 60-year-old Hispanic female with a history of mild asthma presented with exertional and pleuritic chest pain with weight loss, arthralgia, subjective fever, and night sweats for the last 3 months. Given the nonspecific nature of the presentation, further workup was pursued. Laboratory results indicated pancytopenia, elevated INR, and positive autoimmune panel including ANA, anti-chromatin, anti-histone, and rheumatoid factor as well as abnormal C3 and C4. Subsequent liver biopsy with interface hepatitis lead to a diagnosis of AIH with concurrent systemic lupus erythematosus suspected. CONCLUSION: The diagnostic work up for AIH is multimodal and aims to differentiate other etiologies such as congestive hepatopathy, iron overload, viral hepatitis, and other autoimmune liver diseases. In this particular case, unusual clinical and laboratory findings led to diagnosis of the overlap syndrome. Treatment for both was necessary to prevent further progression of disease.

Hepatitis A, cardiomyopathy, aplastic anemia, and acute liver failure: A devastating scenario.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) causes an acute infection and is usually asymptomatic in children. When clinical manifestations appear, these include choluria, jaundice, and abdominal pain. Although infrequent, extra-hepatic manifestations related to HAV have been described, affecting the heart, bone marrow, blood vessels, and other tissues.A 10-year-old boy from a rural area presented with a 15-day history of malaise, fever, and jaundice; laboratory examinations were compatible with HAV infection. The patient turned encephalopathic and was remitted to our center, where laboratory examinations showed a medullary aplasia and fulminant hepatitis requiring a liver transplant that was performed 72 hours after admission. At 24 hours post transplant, the patient developed a cardiomyopathy secondary to HAV, and intravenous immunoglobulin was administered. The patient is still alive and attending his medical check-ups.Although rare, extra-hepatic manifestations of HAV infection have been described in 14% of cases. The groups of patients affected are usually aged and present with high bilirubin levels. Acquired aplastic anemia and myocarditis caused by HAV are uncommon, and its pathophysiology has not yet been elucidated.HAV infection is usually asymptomatic in children, although extra-hepatic manifestations can appear requiring early detection and management.

Hepatitis A Virus: Essential Knowledge and a Novel Identify-Isolate-Inform Tool for Frontline Healthcare Providers.

Infection with hepatitis A virus (HAV) causes a highly contagious illness that can lead to serious morbidity and occasional mortality. Although the overall incidence of HAV has been declining since the introduction of the HAV vaccine, there have been an increasing number of outbreaks within the United States and elsewhere between 2016 and 2017. These outbreaks have had far-reaching consequences, with a large number of patients requiring hospitalization and several deaths. Accordingly, HAV is proving to present a renewed public health challenge. Through use of the "Identify-Isolate-Inform" tool as adapted for HAV, emergency physicians can become more familiar with the identification and management of patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) with exposure, infection, or risk of contracting disease. While it can be asymptomatic, HAV typically presents with a prodrome of fever, nausea/vomiting, and abdominal pain followed by jaundice. Healthcare providers should maintain strict standard precautions for all patients suspected of having HAV infection as well as contact precautions in special cases. Hand hygiene with soap and warm water should be emphasized, and affected patients should be counseled to avoid food preparation and close contact with vulnerable populations. Additionally, ED providers should offer post-exposure prophylaxis to exposed contacts and encourage vaccination as well as other preventive measures for at-risk individuals. ED personnel should inform local public health departments of any suspected case.

Immune-Stimulatory and Therapeutic Activity of Tinospora cordifolia: Double-Edged Sword against Salmonellosis.

The present study was aimed at determining the activity of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Tinospora cordifolia (AETC and METC) against Salmonella typhimurium. In vitro anti-Salmonella activity of T. cordifolia was determined through the broth dilution and agar well diffusion assays. The immune-stimulating potential of AETC or METC was determined by measuring the cytokine levels in the culture supernatants of treated murine J774 macrophages. Antibacterial activity of AETC or METC was determined by treating S. typhimurium-infected macrophages and BALB/C mice. The toxicity of AETC or METC was determined by measuring the levels of liver inflammation markers aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) and antioxidant enzymes. Macrophages treated with AETC or METC secreted greater levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-1ß. METC showed greater activity against S. typhimurium infection in macrophages and mice as well. Treatment with METC resulted in increased survival and reduced bacterial load in S. typhimurium-infected mice. Moreover, METC or AETC treatment reduced the liver inflammation and rescued the levels of antioxidant enzymes in S. typhimurium-infected mice. The results of the present study suggest that the use of T. cordifolia may act as a double-edged sword in combating salmonellosis.

Risk factors for hospitalisation and associated costs among patients with hepatitis A associated with imported pomegranate arils, United States, 2013.

OBJECTIVES: To assess hospitalisation risk factors and economic effects associated with a multistate hepatitis A outbreak in 2013. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective case series. METHODS: Eligible outbreak-related cases confirmed by September 1, 2013, were defined as acute hepatitis symptoms and positive IgM anti-hepatitis A during March 15-August 12 among patients who consumed the food vehicle or had the outbreak genotype. We reviewed medical records, comparing demographic and clinical characteristics among hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients; we used logistic regression analysis to identify factors associated with hospitalization. We interviewed patients regarding symptom duration and healthcare usage and estimated per-patient and total costs. Health departments reported outbreak-related personnel hours. RESULTS: Medical records were reviewed for 147/159 (92%) eligible patients; median age was 48 (range: 1-84) years, and 64 (44%) patients were hospitalized. Having any chronic medical condition was independently associated with hospitalisation (odds ratio, 3.80; 95% confidence interval, 1.68-8.62). Interviews were completed for 114 (72%) eligible patients; estimated per-patient cost of healthcare and productivity loss was $13,467 for hospitalized and $2138 for non-hospitalized patients and $1,304,648 for all 165 outbreak-related cases. State and local public health personnel expenditures included 82 h and $3221/outbreak-related case. CONCLUSIONS: Hospitalisations in this outbreak were associated with chronic medical conditions and resulted in substantial healthcare usage and lost productivity. These data can be used to inform future evaluation of expansion of hepatitis A vaccination recommendations to include adults with chronic medical conditions.

[Organisation of medical care to military personnel with viral hepatitis. A during the local armed conflicts].

Organisation of medical care to military personnel with viral hepatitis A during the local armed conflicts. The article provides an analysis of medical care organisation system to patients with viral hepatitis A during conducting counterterror operations on the North Caucasus (1994-1996 and 1999-2002). The authors provided information on the main problems of medical support in modern local armed conflicts and shortcomings of organization of medical care to patients with viral hepatitis A in the following conditions: multistage, discrepancy between calculation of forces and facilities and character of military conditions, shortcoming of staff structure of medicalfacilities, inappropriate level ofproficiency ofphysicians of infectious profile and absence of regulations, concerning the use for equipment of infectious hospitals. 'Possible -ways for resolving these problems are showed.

Hepatitis A complicated with acute renal failure and high hepatocyte growth factor: A case report.

A 58-year-old man was admitted to our hospital. Laboratory data showed severe liver injury and that the patient was positive for immunoglobulin M anti-hepatitis A virus (HAV) antibodies. He was also complicated with severe renal dysfunction and had an extremely high level of serum hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). Therefore, he was diagnosed with severe acute liver failure with acute renal failure (ARF) caused by HAV infection. Prognosis was expected to be poor because of complications by ARF and high serum HGF. However, liver and renal functions both improved rapidly without intensive treatment, and he was subsequently discharged from our hospital on the 21(st) hospital day. Although complication with ARF and high levels of serum HGF are both important factors predicting poor prognosis in acute liver failure patients, the present case achieved a favorable outcome. Endogenous HGF might play an important role as a regenerative effector in injured livers and kidneys.