Adequate and excessive food consumption in Suriname: a multiethnic middle-income country.

OBJECTIVES: To explore food consumption among different sex, age, ethnic, urban, education and income groups in Suriname. METHODS: Data from a cross-sectional population study (n = 5748; 15-64 year) were used. Food consumption was defined adequate if (1) fruit and vegetable intake was conformable to WHO recommendations, (2) mostly vegetable oil was used, and (3) whole-wheat products were used ≥ 3 days/week. Food consumption was defined excessive if 3 out of the following 5 items scored positive: consumption of (1) snack, (2) sweet, (3) fast food, or (4) soft drink ≥ 3 days/week, or (5) salt was always added while preparing a hot meal. RESULTS: 6.4% (95% CI 5.8-7.1) had an adequate and 21.9% (95% CI 20.9-23.0) an excessive food consumption pattern, with differences among ethnic groups (p < 0.05). Adequate consumption increased, while excessive consumption decreased with increasing age (p < 0.05). Both adequate and excessive consumption increased with higher degree of urbanization, level of education and income (p < 0.05). Except for level of education for adequate consumption, all characteristics remained in both models with adequate and excessive consumption as outcome (p < 0.09). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests interventions to promote adequate food consumption in general and to limit excessive food consumption mainly focused on youngsters and those living in urbanized areas of higher socioeconomic status.

Validation of the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire in 3 year old children of a multi-ethnic Asian population: The GUSTO cohort study.

The Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) was developed to measure eating behaviors related to obesity risk in children. However, this questionnaire has not been validated for use in South East Asia, where parenting practices are different from those in western countries and child obesity rates are increasing. The aim of this study was to examine the validity of the CEBQ administered to mothers of children aged 3 years in Singapore. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine if the original 35-item, 8-factor model was supported in our cohort. Participants were 636 mother-child dyads (mean (SD) child age = 36.7 (1.6) months), from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) birth cohort in which the mothers were characterized in pregnancy and children were followed up to age 3 years. The CFA showed a poor model fit; RMSEA = 0.072 (PCLOSE<0.001), SRMR = 0.094, CFI = 0.826, and TLI = 0.805. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 35 item, 7-factor structure (factor loadings ≥ 0.35): enjoyment of food, food fussiness, emotional overeating, desire to drink, emotional under eating, satiety responsiveness and slowness in eating. Cronbach's alpha estimates ranged from 0.70 to 0.88 for the 7 subscales. Convergent validity tests via correlation analysis revealed that emotional under eating (r = -0.14), slowness in eating (r = -0.16) and satiety responsiveness (r = -0.11) were negatively correlated with BMI z-score at 3 years, while enjoyment of food (r = 0.12) was positively correlated, p < 0.05. In conclusion, we found a revised 7-factor structure of the CEBQ more appropriate for examining eating behavior in 3 year old children in the Singapore setting. Further replication studies in a separate cohort study are warranted before further use of these factor structures generated.

Late-night overeating is associated with smaller breakfast, breakfast skipping, and obesity in children: The Healthy Growth Study.

OBJECTIVE: Excessive energy intake during evening hours is associated with several health problems. The aim of this study was to investigate for the first time the possible association of late-night overeating with breakfast habits and obesity in a large sample of Greek children ages 9 to 13 y. METHODS: In all, 2655 schoolchildren (9-13 y) participated in the Healthy Growth Study, a cross-sectional epidemiologic study conducted in 77 primary schools in four large regions in Greece. The present study presents results on 1912 children having full data regarding anthropometric, dietary, physical activity, and physical examination indices. RESULTS: High-energy intake at dinner and evening snack was associated with higher likelihood of skipping breakfast (odds ratio, 1.85; 95% confidence interval 1.42-2.39) and with lower caloric intake at breakfast (ß = 0.14; P < 0.001). Children at the lowest quartile of physical activity levels were found to have a positive association between the calories consumed at dinner and their body mass index (ß = 0.11; P = 0.019). This association was inverse for children at the highest quartile of physical activity levels (ß = -0.10; P = 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Late-night overeating is associated with skipping and/or consuming a smaller breakfast. In children with low levels of physical activity, it is associated with increased body mass index. Future relevant studies are essential to further explore and confirm the findings of the present study.

Overconsumption of Energy and Excessive Discretionary Food Intake Inflates Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Australia.

Population dietary guidelines have started to include information about the environmental impacts of food choices, but more quantifiable evidence is needed, particularly about the impacts associated with discretionary foods. This paper utilised the 2011-2012 Australian Health Survey food intake data along with a highly disaggregated input-output model to estimate the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) of Australians' dietary intake, and compare current patterns of eating which vary in diet quality and GHGe to the recommended diet. The average dietary GHGe were 18.72 ± 12.06 and 13.73 ± 8.72 kg CO2e/day for male and female adults, respectively. The correlation between total energy and GHGe was r = 0.54 (p < 0.001). Core foods contributed 68.4% and discretionary foods 29.4%. Within core foods, fresh meat and alternatives (33.9%) was the greatest contributor. The modelling of current dietary patterns showed the contribution of discretionary foods to GHGe was 121% greater in the average diet and 307% greater in the "lower quality, higher GHGe" diet compared to the recommended diet. Reducing discretionary food intake would allow for small increases in emissions from core foods (in particular vegetables, dairy and grains), thereby providing a nutritional benefit at little environmental expense. Public health messages that promote healthy eating, eating to one's energy needs and improved diet quality will also contribute to lowering GHGe.

Body Image, Food Addiction, Depression, and Body Mass Index in University Students.

The relationship between body image, depression, food addiction and body mass index (BMI) and differences in these variables due to gender and field of education have not been studied extensively. This study was conducted on a total of 793 university students (20.19 ± 1.90 years). The Beck Depression Inventory, Yale Food Addiction, and Body Image Scale were used. It was determined that body image scores of females and individuals enrolled in health sciences programs were lower compared to those of males and those enrolled in the social sciences. There was a negative relationship between body image and depression and food addiction scores. There was a positive relationship between food addiction and depression scores, in addition to a positive relationship between food addiction and BMI.

Brazilian version of food cravings questionnaires: Psychometric properties and sex differences.

The Food Cravings Questionnaires, State (FCQ-State) and Trait (FCQ-Trait), are commonly used to assess food-craving behavior. This study aimed to develop and validate the Brazilian version of these questionnaires, and to explore potential gender differences in the trait version scores. Data were collected from (n = 611) undergraduate students. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the questionnaires structure, and construct validity was assessed. The FCQ-State-Br and FCQ-Trait-Br presented good psychometric properties, adequate model fit, and internal consistency, in general and by gender. A conservation of original structure of the Food Cravings Questionnaires was verified in the Brazilian versions. A good performance in the evaluations concerning the discriminant and convergent validity seem to corroborate these structures. Overweight individuals showed an increase in food-craving behavior. In females, this increase occurred in the guilt dimension, whereas in males, the increase was in the lack of control dimension. In addition, female dieters presented higher scores on the guilt dimension compared with female non-dieters. FCQ-State-Br and FCQ-Trait-Br constitute valid instruments for measuring food-craving behavior in the Brazilian population. Moreover, these findings suggest that food cravings may be an important aspect to be considered in clinical management of overweight individuals, and may require a sex-specific approach.

Reproducibility of an in-laboratory test meal to assess ad libitum energy intake in adolescents with obesity.

AIM: The aim of the present work was to test the reproducibility of a personalized in-laboratory ad libitum buffet meal in assessing energy and macronutrient intake in obese adolescents. METHODS: Twelve 13.5 ± 1.5 years old obese adolescent girls were asked to complete three identical experimental sessions during which an ad libitum buffet meal was presented at lunch time. The buffet was personalized based on food preference questionnaires, presented usually consumed food items and excluded preferred foods. Total energy intake and the energy ingested derived from each macronutrient were assessed by investigators using the Bilnuts nutritional software. RESULTS: Mean body mass was 87.0 ± 13.7 kg and mean BMI was 32.2 ± 4.9 kg/m(2). Mean FM percentage was 39.1 ± 4.4% and FFM was 50.6 ± 7.7 kg. There was no significant difference between total energy intake, the percentage of intake related to fat, protein or Carbohydrates (CHO) between the three sessions. The Intraclass Correlations (ICC) observed for total energy intake was 0.99. ICC for Protein, Fat and CHO were 0.38; 0.96 and 0.81 respectively. The Bland & Altman visual analysis revealed an important agreement between meals. CONCLUSION: The proposed personalized in-laboratory ad libitum test meal produces is a reproducible methods to assess energy and macronutrients intake in obese adolescent girls.

Elevation of Fasting Ghrelin in Healthy Human Subjects Consuming a High-Salt Diet: A Novel Mechanism of Obesity?

Overweight/obesity is a chronic disease that carries an increased risk of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and premature death. Several epidemiological studies have demonstrated a clear relationship between salt intake and obesity, but the pathophysiologic mechanisms remain unknown. We hypothesized that ghrelin, which regulates appetite, food intake, and fat deposition, becomes elevated when one consumes a high-salt diet, contributing to the progression of obesity. We, therefore, investigated fasting ghrelin concentrations during a high-salt diet. Thirty-eight non-obese and normotensive subjects (aged 25 to 50 years) were selected from a rural community in Northern China. They were sequentially maintained on a normal diet for three days at baseline, a low-salt diet for seven days (3 g/day, NaCl), then a high-salt diet for seven days (18 g/day). The concentration of plasma ghrelin was measured using an immunoenzyme method (ELISA). High-salt intake significantly increased fasting ghrelin levels, which were higher during the high-salt diet (320.7 ± 30.6 pg/mL) than during the low-salt diet (172.9 ± 8.9 pg/mL). The comparison of ghrelin levels between the different salt diets was statistically-significantly different (p < 0.01). A positive correlation between 24-h urinary sodium excretion and fasting ghrelin levels was demonstrated. Our data indicate that a high-salt diet elevates fasting ghrelin in healthy human subjects, which may be a novel underlying mechanism of obesity.

Latina mothers' influences on child appetite regulation.

Parents influence child weight through interactions that shape the development of child eating behaviors. In this study we examined the association between maternal autonomy promoting serving practices and child appetite regulation. We predicted that maternal autonomy promoting serving practices would be positively associated with child appetite regulation. Participants were low-income Latino children-a group at high risk for the development of childhood obesity. A total of 186 low-income Latina mothers and their 4-5 year old children came to a laboratory on two separate days. On the first day, mothers and children chose foods for a meal from a buffet and were audio/videotaped so that maternal autonomy promoting serving practices could be later coded. On the second day, children completed the Eating in the Absence of Hunger (EAH) task to measure child appetite regulation. Mothers also completed the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) to measure other aspects of child appetite regulation (food responsiveness, satiety responsiveness, and emotional overeating). Maternal autonomy promotion during serving was assessed using seven separate measures of child and maternal behavior. Principal components analyses of these serving measures yielded three components: allows child choice, child serves food, and mother does not restrict. Consistent with hypotheses, maternal autonomy promoting serving practices (i.e., allows child choice and does not restrict) were negatively associated with maternal reports of child food responsiveness and emotional overeating (CEBQ). The results for the EAH task were more complex-mothers who were autonomy promoting in their serving practices had children who ate the most in the absence of hunger, but this linear effect was moderated somewhat by a quadratic effect, with moderate levels of autonomy promotion during serving associated with the greatest child EAH.

Effectiveness of lifestyle interventions to reduce binge eating symptoms in African American and Hispanic women.

OBJECTIVE: Lifestyle interventions that promote physical activity and healthy dietary habits may reduce binge eating symptoms and be more feasible and sustainable among ethnic minority women, who are less likely to seek clinical treatment for eating disorders. The purpose of this study was to investigate (1) whether participating in a lifestyle intervention is a feasible way to decrease binge eating symptoms (BES) and (2) whether changes in BES differed by intervention (physical activity vs. dietary habits) and binge eating status at baseline (binger eater vs. non-binge eater) in African American and Hispanic women. METHOD: Health Is Power (HIP) was a longitudinal randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and improve dietary habits. Women (N = 180) who completed anthropometric measures and questionnaires assessing fruit and vegetable and dietary fat intake, BES and demographics at baseline and post-intervention six months later were included in the current study. RESULTS: Over one-fourth (27.8%) of participants were categorized as binge-eaters. Repeated measures ANOVA demonstrated significant two- and three-way interactions. Decreases in BES over time were greater in binge eaters than in non-binge eaters (F(1,164) = 33.253, p < .001), and women classified as binge eaters who participated in the physical activity intervention reported greater decreases in BES than non-binge eaters in the dietary habits intervention (F(1,157) = 5.170, p = .024). DISCUSSION: Findings suggest behavioral interventions to increase physical activity may lead to reductions in BES among ethnic minority women and ultimately reduce the prevalence of binge eating disorder and health disparities in this population.

Nutritional advice from George Orwell. Exploring the social mechanisms behind the overconsumption of unhealthy foods by people with low socio-economic status.

Despite a general consensus and recognition of the importance of the "social gradient" on nutritional standards and ultimately people's health, (Budrys, 2003; Marmot & Wilkinson, 1999; Marmot et al., 1991; Ross & Wu, 1995), the body of literature identifying and describing the actual underlying social mechanisms which could explain this association is small, fragmented and not contained within one single discipline of thought - the effects of this conundrum seem easier to describe than to explain. The aim of this article is therefore to explore and identify social mechanisms, which could help explain why people with low socio-economic status consume a disproportionate amount of unhealthy foods and therefore also observe poorer diets. It is therefore in many ways an exploration into the nature of (relative) poverty. The point of departure for this exploration and identification is historical descriptions (in the form of excerpts) from George Orwell's (1937) book "The Road to Wigan Pier" on the living conditions of the British working classes. These descriptions will be aligned with results from contemporary research into nutritional behaviour. Strong similarities are identified between George Orwell's historical descriptions of the working-class's unhealthy diet and the findings from contemporary research into nutritional behaviour of people with a low socio-economic status. Certain social mechanisms influencing nutritional choices are readily identifiable across disciplines, and even partly reproduced in different historical, social and spatial contexts, with stronger negative (nutritional) consequences for people with low socio-economic status. The disregard of social mechanisms, and therefore implicitly issues of class, could indicate a general "de-socialization" of nutritional advice also in its dispersal through various health-promotion initiatives and campaigns, which raises serious questions about the usefulness of much nutritional advice, already tentatively questioned by some nutritionist (Burr et al., 2007) as well as "food" sociologist (Smith & Holm, 2010).

Are there common familial influences for major depressive disorder and an overeating-binge eating dimension in both European American and African American female twins?

OBJECTIVE: Although prior studies have demonstrated that depression is associated with an overeating-binge eating dimension (OE-BE) phenotypically, little research has investigated whether familial factors contribute to the co-occurrence of these phenotypes, especially in community samples with multiple racial/ethnic groups. We examined the extent to which familial (i.e., genetic and shared environmental) influences overlapped between Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and OE-BE in a population-based sample and whether these influences were similar across racial/ethnic groups. METHOD: Participants included 3,226 European American (EA) and 550 African American (AA) young adult women from the Missouri Adolescent Female Twin Study. An adaptation of the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism (SSAGA) was administered to assess lifetime DSM-IV MDD and OE-BE. Quantitative genetic modeling was used to estimate familial influences between both phenotypes; all models controlled for age. RESULTS: The best-fitting model, which combined racial/ethnic groups, found that additive genetic influences accounted for 44% (95% CI: 34%, 53%) of the MDD variance and 40% (25%, 54%) for OE-BE, with the remaining variances due to non-shared environmental influences. Genetic overlap was substantial (rg = .61 [.39, .85]); non-shared environmental influences on MDD and OE-BE overlapped weakly (re = .26 [.09, .42]). DISCUSSION: Results suggest that common familial influences underlie MDD and OE-BE, and the magnitude of familial influences contributing to the comorbidity between MDD and OE-BE is similar between EA and AA women. If racial/ethnic differences truly exist, then larger sample sizes may be needed to fully elucidate familial risk for comorbid MDD and OE-BE across these groups.

Breakfast consumption is positively associated with nutrient adequacy in Canadian children and adolescents.

Although breakfast is associated with more favourable nutrient intake profiles in children, limited data exist on the impact of breakfast on nutrient adequacy and the potential risk of excessive intakes. Accordingly, we assessed differences in nutrient intake and adequacy among breakfast non-consumers, consumers of breakfasts with ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) and consumers of other types of breakfasts. We used cross-sectional data from 12,281 children and adolescents aged 4-18 years who took part in the nationally representative Canadian Community Health Survey, 2004. Mean nutrient intakes (obtained using a multiple-pass 24 h recall method) were compared among the breakfast groups using covariate-adjusted regression analysis. Usual nutrient intake distributions, generated using the National Cancer Institute method, were used to determine the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy or the potential risk of excessive intakes from food sources alone and from the combination of food plus supplements. Of these Canadian children, 10% were breakfast non-consumers, 33% were consumers of RTEC breakfasts and 57% were consumers of other types of breakfasts. Non-consumption of breakfast increased with age (4-8 years: 2%; 9-13 years: 9%; 14-18 years: 18%). Breakfast consumers had higher covariate-adjusted intakes of energy, many nutrients and fibre, and lower fat intakes. The prevalence of nutrient inadequacy for vitamin D, Ca, Fe and Mg (from food alone or from the combination of food plus supplements) was highest in breakfast non-consumers, intermediate in consumers of other types of breakfasts and lowest in consumers of RTEC breakfast. For vitamin A, P and Zn, breakfast non-consumers had a higher prevalence of nutrient inadequacy than both breakfast groups. The potential risk of excessive nutrient intakes was low in all groups. Efforts to encourage and maintain breakfast consumption in children and adolescents are warranted.

Sex and race differences in caloric intake during sleep restriction in healthy adults.

BACKGROUND: Evidence indicates that men and African Americans may be more susceptible to weight gain resulting from sleep loss than women and whites, respectively. Increased daily caloric intake is a major behavioral mechanism that underlies the relation between sleep loss and weight gain. OBJECTIVE: We sought to assess sex and race differences in caloric intake, macronutrient intake, and meal timing during sleep restriction. DESIGN: Forty-four healthy adults aged 21-50 y (mean ± SD: 32.7 ± 8.7 y; n = 21 women, n = 16 whites) completed an in-laboratory protocol that included 2 consecutive baseline nights [10 or 12 h time in bed (TIB)/night; 2200-0800 or 2200-1000] followed by 5 consecutive sleep-restriction nights (4 h TIB/night; 0400-0800). Caloric intake and meal-timing data were collected during the 2 d after baseline sleep and the first 3 d after sleep restriction. RESULTS: During sleep restriction, subjects increased daily caloric intake (P < 0.001) and fat intake (P = 0.024), including obtaining more calories from condiments, desserts, and salty snacks (Ps < 0.05) and consumed 532.6 ± 295.6 cal during late-night hours (2200-0359). Relative to women, men consumed more daily calories during baseline and sleep restriction, exhibited a greater increase in caloric intake during sleep restriction (d = 0.62), and consumed a higher percentage of daily calories during late-night hours (d = 0.78, Ps < 0.05). African Americans and whites did not significantly differ in daily caloric intake, increased caloric intake during sleep restriction, or meal timing. However, African Americans consumed more carbohydrates, less protein, and more caffeine-free soda and juice than whites did during the study (Ps < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Men may be more susceptible to weight gain during sleep loss than women due to a larger increase in daily caloric intake, particularly during late-night hours. These findings are relevant to the promotion of public health awareness by highlighting nutritional risk factors and modifiable behaviors for weight gain related to sleep-wake timing.

Dietary patterns in stroke patients in Northwest India.

OBJECTIVES: Little is known about the dietary patterns among stroke patients in India. We explored the dietary patterns in stroke patients and attempted to correlate the dietary patterns with stroke characteristics. METHODS: This hospital-based study was carried out in a tertiary referral centre in Northwest India from March 2008 to September 2009. All first ever stroke (ischaemic and hemorrhagic) patients were interviewed by the dietician using an oral diet questionnaire. The demographic information and risk factors were noted and outcome was assessed after 30 days using modified Rankin scale (≤2 = good outcome). RESULTS: A total of 210 stroke patients were enrolled. The mean age was 60 ± 14 years and 126 (60%) patients were men. Hypertension (167 (79.5%)) was the major risk factor. All patients consumed cereals and beverages. Consumption of other food items in the diet were as follows: milk and milk products (203 (96.7%)), saturated fats (butter, butter oil, cream) (133 (63.3%)), bakery items (139 (66.2%)), fried snacks (116 (55.2%)), fruits (96 (45.7%)), and juices (20 (9.5%)). Large proportion of the patients (112 (53.6%)) consumed more food calories than recommended. Use of fried snacks was significant in patients who consumed alcohol (P = 0.03) and patients who had diabetes mellitus were more likely to use saturated fats (P = 0.01). DISCUSSION: Majority of the patients consumed milk and milk products. Fruits and juices were consumed by a small proportion of patients. Our results provide opportunities for stroke prevention by diet modification.

Underestimating a serving size may lead to increased food consumption when using Canada's Food Guide.

It is unclear whether Canadians accurately estimate serving sizes and the number of servings in their diet as intended by Canada's Food Guide (CFG). The objective of this study was to determine if participants can accurately quantify the size of 1 serving and the number of servings consumed per day. White, Black, South Asian, and East Asian adults (n = 145) estimated the quantity of food that constituted 1 CFG serving, and used CFG to estimate the number of servings that they consumed from their 24-h dietary recall. Participants estimated 1 serving size of vegetables and fruit (+43%) and grains (+55%) to be larger than CFG serving sizes (p ≤ 0.05); meat alternatives (-33%) and cheese (-31%) to be smaller than a CFG serving size (p ≤ 0.05); and chicken, carrots, and milk servings accurately (p > 0.05). Serving size estimates were positively correlated with the amount of food participants regularly consumed at 1 meal (p < 0.001). From their food records, all ethnicities estimated that they consumed fewer servings of vegetables and fruit (-15%), grains (-28%), and meat and alternatives (-14%) than they actually consumed, and more servings of milk and alternatives (+26%, p ≤ 0.05) than they actually consumed. Consequently, 68% of participants believed they needed to increase consumption by greater than 200 kcal to meet CFG recommendations. In conclusion, estimating serving sizes to be larger than what is defined by CFG may inadvertently lead to estimating that fewer servings were consumed and overeating if Canadians follow CFG recommendations without guidance. Thus, revision to CFG or greater public education regarding the dietary guidelines is warranted.

Behavioral symptoms of eating disorders in Native Americans: results from the ADD Health Survey Wave III.

OBJECTIVE: To examine prevalence and correlates (gender, Body Mass Index) of disordered eating in American Indian/Native American (AI/NA) and white young adults. METHOD: We examined data from the 10,334 participants (mean age 21.93 years, SD = 1.8) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (ADD Health) Wave III for gender differences among AI/NA participants (236 women, 253 men) and ethnic group differences on measures of eating pathology. RESULTS: Among AI/NA groups, women were significantly more likely than men to report loss of control and embarrassment due to overeating. In gender-stratified analyses, a significantly higher prevalence of AI/NA women reported disordered eating behaviors compared with white women; there were no between group differences in prevalence for breakfast skipping or having been diagnosed with an eating disorder. Among men, disordered eating behaviors were uncommon and no comparison was statistically significant. DISCUSSION: Our study offers a first glimpse into the problem of eating pathology among AI/NA individuals. Gender differences among AI/NA participants are similar to results reported in white samples. That AI/NA women were as likely as white women to have been diagnosed with an eating disorder is striking in light of well documented under-utilization of mental health care among AI/NA individuals.

Overeating styles and adiposity among multiethnic youth.

Reasons for inconsistent associations between overeating styles and adiposity among youth may include differences in effects by age, gender, or ethnicity; failure to control for social desirability of response; or adiposity measurement limitations. This study examined the relationship between overeating styles and multiple measures of adiposity, after controlling for social desirability and testing for moderation by ethnicity, age, and gender. Data from 304 9-10 year old children and 264 17-18 year old adolescents equally representing African American, Hispanic, and White ethnic groups were extracted from a larger cross-sectional study. Measures included the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (restrained, external, and emotional overeating subscales), the "Lie Scale" from the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, and measured weight, height, waist circumference, and triceps skinfold. BMI z-score and a global adiposity index were calculated. Mixed model linear regression showed restraint was positively and external eating was negatively related to measures of adiposity. African American youth had a stronger inverse association between emotional eating and adiposity than White or Hispanic youth. Relationships were not influenced by social desirability nor moderated by age or gender. Overeating styles are related to adiposity in nearly all youth but the nature of these associations are moderated by ethnicity.

Prevalence of melanocortin-4 receptor deficiency in Europeans and their age-dependent penetrance in multigenerational pedigrees.

OBJECTIVE: Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) deficiency is the most frequent genetic cause of obesity. However, there is uncertainty regarding the degree of penetrance of this condition, and the putative impact of the environment on the development of obesity in MC4R mutation carriers is unknown. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We determined the MC4R sequence in 2,257 obese individuals and 2,677 nonobese control subjects of European origin and established the likely functional impact of all variants detected. We then included relatives of probands carriers and studied 25 pedigrees, including 97 carriers and 94 noncarriers from three generations. RESULTS: Of the MC4R nonsynonymous mutations found in obese subjects, 68% resulted in a loss of function in vitro. They were found in 1.72% of obese versus 0.15% of nonobesed subjects (P = 6.9 x 10(-10)). Among the families, abnormal eating behavior was more frequent in both MC4R-deficient children and adults than in noncarriers. Although BMI was inversely associated with educational status in noncarrier adults, no such relationship was seen in MC4R mutation carriers. We observed a generational effect, with a penetrance of 40% in MC4R-deficient adults aged >52 years, 60% in 18- to 52-year-old adults, and 79% in children. The longitudinal study of adult carriers showed an increasing age-dependent penetrance (37% at 20 years versus 60% at >40 years). CONCLUSIONS: We have established a robust estimate of age-related penetrance for MC4R deficiency and demonstrated a generational effect on penetrance, which may relate to the development of an "obesogenic" environment. It remains to be seen whether appropriate manipulation of environmental factors may contribute to preventing the development of obesity even in those strongly genetically predisposed to it.