The role of hormones in ILC2-driven allergic airway inflammation.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are a type of innate immune cells that produce a large amount of IL-5 and IL-13 and two cytokines that are crucial for various processes such as allergic airway inflammation, tissue repair and tissue homeostasis. It is known that damaged epithelial-derived alarmins, such as IL-33, IL-25 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), are the predominant ILC2 activators that mediate the production of type 2 cytokines. In recent years, abundant studies have found that many factors can regulate ILC2 development and function. Hormones synthesized by the body's endocrine glands or cells play an important role in immune response. Notably, ILC2s express hormone receptors and their proliferation and function can be modulated by multiple hormones during allergic airway inflammation. Here, we summarize the effects of multiple hormones on ILC2-driven allergic airway inflammation and discuss the underlying mechanisms and potential therapeutic significance.

Hormones and B-cell development in health and autoimmunity.

The development of B cells into antibody-secreting plasma cells is central to the adaptive immune system as they induce protective and specific antibody responses against invading pathogens. Various studies have shown that, during this process, hormones can play important roles in the lymphopoiesis, activation, proliferation, and differentiation of B cells, and depending on the signal given by the receptor of each hormone, they can have a positive or negative effect. In autoimmune diseases, hormonal deregulation has been reported to be related to the survival, activation and/or differentiation of autoreactive clones of B cells, thus promoting the development of autoimmunity. Clinical manifestations of autoimmune diseases have been associated with estrogens, prolactin (PRL), and growth hormone (GH) levels. However, androgens, such as testosterone and progesterone (P4), could have a protective effect. The objective of this review is to highlight the links between different hormones and the immune response mediated by B cells in the etiopathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and multiple sclerosis (MS). The data collected provide insights into the role of hormones in the cellular, molecular and/or epigenetic mechanisms that modulate the B-cell response in health and disease.

Progesterone: A Unique Hormone with Immunomodulatory Roles in Pregnancy.

Progesterone is well known for its numerous endocrinologic roles in pregnancy but is also endowed with fascinating immunomodulatory capabilities. It can downregulate the induction of inflammatory reactions, the activation of immune cells and the production of cytokines, which are critical mediators of immune responses. These features appear to be critical to the success of pregnancy, given the ability of maternal immune reactivity to interfere with pregnancy and to contribute to several pregnancy complications. This review summarizes the contribution of maternal immune effectors in general, and cytokines in particular, to pregnancy complications such as recurrent miscarriage, pre-eclampsia and preterm labor; it describes the promise offered by supplementation with progesterone and the oral progestogen dydrogesterone, as well as the progesterone-induced blocking factor in the prevention and/or treatment of these serious complications.

Alterations in Saliva and Plasma Cytokine Concentrations During Long-Duration Spaceflight.

Long-duration spaceflight is known to cause immune dysregulation in astronauts. Biomarkers of immune system function are needed to determine both the need for and effectiveness of potential immune countermeasures for astronauts. Whereas plasma cytokine concentrations are a well-established biomarker of immune status, salivary cytokine concentrations are emerging as a sensitive indicator of stress and inflammation. For this study, to aid in characterizing immune dysregulation during spaceflight, plasma and saliva cytokines were monitored in astronauts before, during and after long-duration spaceflight onboard the International Space Station. Blood was collected from 13 astronauts at 3 timepoints before, 5 timepoints during and 3 timepoints after spaceflight. Saliva was collected from 6 astronauts at 2 timepoints before spaceflight, 2 timepoints during and 3 timepoints following spaceflight. Samples were analyzed using multiplex array technology. Significant increases in the plasma concentration of IL-3, IL-15, IL-12p40, IFN-α2, and IL-7 were observed during spaceflight compared to before flight baseline. Significant decreases in saliva GM-CSF, IL-12p70, IL-10 and IL-13 were also observed during spaceflight as compared to compared to before flight baseline concentrations. Additionally, plasma TGFß1 and TGFß2 concentrations tended to be consistently higher during spaceflight, although these did not reach statistical significance. Overall, the findings confirm an in-vivo hormonal dysregulation of immunity, appearing pro-inflammatory and Th1 in nature, persists during long-duration orbital spaceflight. These biomarkers may therefore have utility for monitoring the effectiveness of biomedical countermeasures for astronauts, with potential application in terrestrial research and medicine.

Possible contribution of trained immunity in faulty hormonal imprinting and DOHaD: Review and hypothesis.

The faulty hormonal imprinting theory (published in 1980) and the DOHaD (Developmental Origin of Health and Disease theory (published in 1986) are twin-concepts: both justify the manifestation after long time (in adults) diseases which had been provoked in differentiating cells (e.g. during gestation). This was demonstrated using animal experiments as well, as comparative statistical methods (in human cases). However, there is no explanation for the tools of memorization (even after decades) of the early adversity and the tools of execution (manifestation) in adult age. It seems likely that immune memory is involved to the memorization of early adversity, up to the manifestation of the result (non-communicable diseases). Nevertheless, the relatively short timespan of adaptive immune memory makes this system insuitable for this function, however the newly recognized trained memory of the innate immune system seems to be theoretically suitable for the storage of the records and handling the sequalae, which is the epigenetic reprogramming in the time of provocation, without changes in base sequences (mutation). The flawed (damaged) program is manifested later, in adult age. Evidences are incomplete, so further animal experiments and human observations are needed for justifying the theory.

Reprogramming of the Immune System by Stress and Faulty Hormonal Imprinting.

PURPOSE: Hormonal imprinting is taking place perinatally at the first encounter between the developing hormone receptors and their target hormones. However, in this crucial period when the developmental window for physiological imprinting is open, other molecules, such as synthetic hormones and endocrine disruptors can bind to the receptors, leading to faulty imprinting with life-long consequences, especially to the immune system. This review presents the factors of stress and faulty hormonal imprinting that lead to reprogramming of the immune system. METHODS: Relevant publications from Pubmed since 1990 were reviewed and synthesized. FINDINGS: The developing immune system is rather sensitive to hormonal effects. Faulty hormonal imprinting is able to reprogram the original developmental program present in a given cell, with lifelong consequences, manifested in alteration of hormone binding by receptors, susceptibility to certain (non-infectious) diseases, and triggering of other diseases. As stress mobilizes the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis if it occurred during gestation or perinatally, it could lead to faulty hormonal imprinting in the immune system, manifested later as allergic and autoimmune diseases or weakness of normal immune defenses. Hormonal imprinting is an epigenetic process and is carried to the offspring without alteration of DNA base sequences. This means that any form of early-life stress alone or in association with hormonal imprinting could be associated with the developmental origin of health and disease (DOHaD). As puberty is also a period of reprogramming, stress or faulty imprinting can change the original (developmental) program, also with life-long consequences. IMPLICATIONS: Considering the continuous differentiation of immune cells (from blast-cells) during the whole life, there is a possibility of late-imprinting or stress-activated reprogramming in the immune system at any periods of life, with later pathogenetic consequences.

The role of glucose homeostasis on immune function in response to exercise: The impact of low or higher energetic conditions.

Immune cells are bioenergetically expensive during activation, which requires tightly regulated control of metabolic pathways. Both low and high glycemic conditions can modulate immune function. States of undernourishment depress the immune system, and in the same way, excessive intake of nutrients, such as an obesity state, compromise its functioning. Multicellular organisms depend on two mechanisms to survive: the regulation and ability to store energy to prevent starvation and the ability to fight against infection. Synergic interactions between metabolism and immunity affect many systems underpinning human health. In a chronic way, the breakdown of glycemic homeostasis in the body can influence cells of the immune system and consequently contribute to the onset of diseases such as type II diabetes, obesity, Alzheimer's, and fat and lean mass loss. On the contrary, exercise, recognized as a primary strategy to control hyperglycemic disorders, also induces a coordinated immune-neuro-endocrine response that acutely modulates cardiovascular, respiratory, and muscle functions and the immune response to exercise is widely dependent on the intensity and volume that may affect an immunodepressive state. These altered immune responses induced by exercise are modulated through the "stress hormones" adrenaline and cortisol, which are a threat to leukocyte metabolism. In this context, carbohydrates appear to have a positive acute response as a strategy to prevent depression of the immune system by maintaining plasma glucose concentrations to meet the energy demand from all systems involved during strenuous exercises. Therefore, herein, we discuss the mechanisms through which exercise may promotes changes on glycemic homeostasis in the metabolism and how it affects immune cell functions under higher or lower glucose conditions.

Adrenal hormones mediate disease tolerance in malaria.

Malaria reduces host fitness and survival by pathogen-mediated damage and inflammation. Disease tolerance mechanisms counter these negative effects without decreasing pathogen load. Here, we demonstrate that in four different mouse models of malaria, adrenal hormones confer disease tolerance and protect against early death, independently of parasitemia. Surprisingly, adrenalectomy differentially affects malaria-induced inflammation by increasing circulating cytokines and inflammation in the brain but not in the liver or lung. Furthermore, without affecting the transcription of hepatic gluconeogenic enzymes, adrenalectomy causes exhaustion of hepatic glycogen and insulin-independent lethal hypoglycemia upon infection. This hypoglycemia is not prevented by glucose administration or TNF-α neutralization. In contrast, treatment with a synthetic glucocorticoid (dexamethasone) prevents the hypoglycemia, lowers cerebral cytokine expression and increases survival rates. Overall, we conclude that in malaria, adrenal hormones do not protect against lung and liver inflammation. Instead, they prevent excessive systemic and brain inflammation and severe hypoglycemia, thereby contributing to tolerance.

Group 2 innate lymphocytes at the interface between innate and adaptive immunity.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) are innate immune cells that respond rapidly to their environment through soluble inflammatory mediators and cell-to-cell interactions. As tissue-resident sentinels, ILC2 help orchestrate localized type 2 immune responses. These ILC2-driven type 2 responses are now recognized in diverse immune processes, different anatomical locations, and homeostatic or pathological settings. ILC2-derived cytokines and cell surface signaling molecules function as key regulators of innate and adaptive immunity. Conversely, ILC2 are governed by their environment. As such, ILC2 form an important nexus of the immune system and may present an attractive target for immune modulation in disease.

Is there a hormonal regulation of phagocytosis at unicellular and multicellular levels? A critical review.

Phagocytosis is an ancient cell function, which is similar at unicellular and multicellular levels. Unicells synthesize, store, and secrete multicellular (mammalian) hormones, which influence their phagocytosis. Amino acid hormones, such as histamine, serotonin, epinephrine, and melatonin stimulate phagocytosis, whereas peptide hormones, such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), insulin, opioids, arginine vasopressin, and atrial natriuretic peptide decreased it, independently on their chemical structure or function in multicellulars. Macrophage phagocytosis of multicellulars is also stimulated by amino acid hormones, such as histamine, epinephrine, melatonin, and thyroid hormones, however, the effect of peptide hormones is not uniform: prolactin, insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and leptin have positive effects, whereas ACTH, human chorionic gonadotropin, opioids, and ghrelin have negative ones. Steroid hormones, such as estrogen, hydrocortisone, and dexamethasone are stimulating macrophage phagocytosis, whereas progesterone, aldosterone, and testosterone are depressing it. Considering the data and observations there is not a specific phagocytosis hormone, or a hormonal regulation of phagocytosis neither unicellular, nor multicellular level, however, hormones having specific functions in multicellulars also influence phagocytosis at both levels universally (in unicellulars) or individually (in macrophages). Nevertheless, the hormonal influence cannot be neglected, as phagocytosis (as a function) is rather sensitive to minute dose of hormones and endocrine disruptors. The hormonal influence of phagocytosis by macrophages can be deduced to the events at unicellular level.

Autoimmune diseases and their relation with immunological, neurological and endocrinological axes.

The immune response is complex, multifactorial, individualized and often unpredictable. There are multiple interconnected systems that allow a balance between physiological autoreactive processes and pathological autoimmunity with consequent organ-specific or systemic autoimmune disease. Based on the concept of the autoimmunity mosaic, up to 50% of autoimmune disorders do not have a clear etiological factor. In order to achieve a clear understanding of the different systems that influence the development of autoimmune diseases, the clinical auto-immunologist needs a dynamic and comprehensive vision of all interconnected pathways that maintain a precise balance in the organism. This has been and will remain a challenge. Understanding the different pathophysiological processes of these diseases will be the basis for predicting different clinical spectra and has the potential to offer innovative therapeutic approaches. This paper offers a practical overview of the bidirectional communication between the immune and endocrine system and the influence this has on the development of autoimmune diseases.

Hormonal regulation of NK cell cytotoxic activity.

The effects of chorionic gonadotropin, estriol (E3), leptin, ghrelin, and kisspeptin on the intracellular expression of perforin, granzyme A, and granzyme B was studied in separated NK cells. All studied hormones except E3 are could modulate the expression of cytotoxic enzymes in NK cells by suppression of the expression of the most active proapoptotic agents, resulting in increased expression of granzyme A, which is typical of the decidual subpopulation of these lymphocytes.

[Neuroendocrine effects of helminthiases (A review)].

Nowadays the number of patients diagnosed with helminthiases shows tendency for steady growth around the world. During last few years, researches in the field of immunology have again turned their attention towards the question of parasitological immunity and tissue response. Helminthiases and other parasitic diseases in some instances can induce central nervous system disorders and violate human behavioral reactions. Studies have suggested an association between epilepsy and helminth infection, but a causal relationship is not established in many helminths, except perhaps with neurocysticercosis. The aim of this review is to reveal details of specific mechanisms of the general helminths' impact on the nervous system and the endocrine control level of physiological functions of the host organism. Finally, we discuss the current gaps in knowledge about the interaction between helminths, immunity, and human endocrine system. Key words: helminths, immunity, hormones, cytokines.

Stress responses sculpt the insect immune system, optimizing defense in an ever-changing world.

A whole organism, network approach can help explain the adaptive purpose of stress-induced changes in immune function. In insects, mediators of the stress response (e.g. stress hormones) divert molecular resources away from immune function and towards tissues necessary for fight-or-flight behaviours. For example, molecules such as lipid transport proteins are involved in both the stress and immune responses, leading to a reduction in disease resistance when these proteins are shifted towards being part of the stress response system. Stress responses also alter immune system strategies (i.e. reconfiguration) to compensate for resource losses that occur during fight-or flight events. In addition, stress responses optimize immune function for different physiological conditions. In insects, the stress response induces a pro-inflammatory state that probably enhances early immune responses.

[The role of the pineal-thymus system in the regulation of autoimmunity, aging and lifespan]. / A tobozmirigy-csecsemomirigy rendszer szerepe az autoimmunitás, öregedés és élettartam szabályozásában.

Thymus is an immunoendocrine organ, the hormones of which mainly influence its own lymphatic elements. It has a central role in the immune system, the neonatal removal causes the collapse of immune system and the whole organism. The thymic nurse cells select the bone marrow originated lymphocytes and destroy the autoreactive ones, while thymus originated Treg cells suppress the autoreactive cells in the periphery. The involution of the organ starts after birth, however, this truly happens in the end of puberty only, as before this it is overcompensated by developmental processes. From the end of adolescence the involution allows the life, proliferation and enhanced functioning of some autoreactive cells, which gradually wear down the cells and intercellular materials, causing the aging. The enhanced and mass function of autoreactive cells lead to the autoimmune diseases and natural death. This means that the involution of thymus is not a part of the organismic involution, but an originator of it, which is manifested in the lifespan-pacemaker function. Thus, aging can be conceptualized as a thymus-commanded slow autoimmune process. The neonatal removal of pineal gland leads to the complete destruction of the thymus and the crashing down of the immune system, as well as to wasting disease. The involution of the pineal and thymus runs parallel, because the two organs form a functional unit. It is probable that the pineal gland is responsible for the involution of thymus and also regulates its lifespan determining role. However, the data reviewed here do not prove the exclusive role of the pineal-thymus system in the regulation of aging and lifespan, but only call attention to such possibility.

Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 4G/5G Polymorphism is Associated with Reproductive Failure: Metabolic, Hormonal, and Immune Profiles.

PROBLEM: Association between PAI-1 4G/5G polymorphism and reproductive failures has been postulated. We aimed to investigate its impact on metabolic, hormonal, and immune profiles of women with reproductive failures. METHOD OF STUDY: A retrospective study was carried out in 208 women with a history of reproductive failure. Study patients were divided into three groups: women with repeated implantation failure (RIF, n = 40), recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL, n = 113), and both RIF and RPL (n = 55). Fertile controls were 92. RESULTS: PAI-1 4G/4G was prevalent in RPL, RIF, and RIF/RPL groups when compared with controls (P = 0.003) and associated with increased risks of RIF, RPL, and RIF with RPL (OR = 4.5, 2.2 and 2.7). Women with PAI-1 4G/4G have significantly higher BMI, glucose, and PAI-1 levels and lower NK cytotoxicity when compared with women without PAI-1 4G/4G. CONCLUSION: PAI-1 4G/5G polymorphism plays a major role in the pathogenesis of RPL and RIF by altering metabolic and immunological profiles.

Model approach for stress induced steroidal hormone cascade changes in severe mental diseases.

INTRODUCTION: Stress was described by Cushing and Selye as an adaptation to a foreign stressor by the anterior pituitary increasing ACTH, which stimulates the release of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid hormones. The question is raised whether stress can induce additional steroidal hormone cascade changes in severe mental diseases (SMD), since stress is the common denominator. METHODS: A systematic literature review was conducted in PubMed, where the steroidal hormone cascade of patients with SMD was compared to the impact of increasing stress on the steroidal hormone cascade (a) in healthy amateur marathon runners with no overtraining; (b) in healthy well-trained elite soldiers of a ranger training unit in North Norway, who were under extreme physical and mental stress, sleep deprivation, and insufficient calories for 1 week; and, (c) in soldiers suffering from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), schizophrenia (SI), and bipolar disorders (BD). RESULTS: (a) When physical stress is exposed moderately to healthy men and women for 3-5 days, as in the case of amateur marathon runners, only few steroidal hormones are altered. A mild reduction in testosterone, cholesterol and triglycerides is detected in blood and in saliva, but there was no decrease in estradiol. Conversely, there is an increase of the glucocorticoids, aldosterone and cortisol. Cellular immunity, but not specific immunity, is reduced for a short time in these subjects. (b) These changes are also seen in healthy elite soldiers exposed to extreme physical and mental stress but to a somewhat greater extent. For instance, the aldosterone is increased by a factor of three. (c) In SMD, an irreversible effect on the entire steroidal hormone cascade is detected. Hormones at the top of the cascade, such as cholesterol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), aldosterone and other glucocorticoids, are increased. However, testosterone and estradiol and their metabolites, and other hormones at the lower end of the cascade, seem to be reduced. 1) The rate and extent of reduction of the androgen metabolites may cause a decrease of cellular and specific immunity which can lead to viral and bacterial infections; joint and stomach inflammation; general pain; and allergic reactions. 2) The decrease in testosterone, and estradiol in SMD may have detrimental effects in cell repair as the estradiol metabolite, 2-methoxy-estradiol (2ME2), helps to transforms stem cells into functional cells. As dopamine and 2ME2 are inversely metabolized via various forms of catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT), well-being and hypertension may be related. 2ME2 is related to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which regulates blood capillary growth and O2 supply. As reduced O2 is a key marker of stress, the increase of glucocorticoids in all forms of mental and physical stress cannot counterbalance the reduced 2ME2 in cellular and mental stress. The increased cholesterol and triglycerides are related to stroke and infarction, contributing to a reduced life expectancy in SMD between 14 and 20 years. The increase of aldosterone leads to increases in anxiety, edema, and lung infections. DISCUSSION: Increasing mental and physical stress is related to systematic deviations in the steroidal hormone cascade in the non-psychotic state, which then may cause life threatening co-morbidities in PTSD, SI, and BD.

[FEMALE STEROID HORMONES - MODULATORS OF IMMUNE RESPONSE TO GENITAL CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS INFECTION.]

In the recent years according to WHO, genital chlamydia is the mos't common sexually transmitted infection. Chlamydia Trachomatis is an intracellular parasite which target are the tubular epithelial cells of the urethra, endocervix, endometrium, endosalpinx, conjunctiva, synovial lining of the joints, Glisson's capsule of the liver Our study, as well as some international researches, shows that in the cases of genital chlamydia there are changes in the ovarian hormones (estradiol and progesterone), their impact on the immune system and their importance for the development and the complications of the infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. The physiological level of the steroid hormones in its turn contributes for the normalization of the local immunity and reduces the possibility of recurrences.

Mast cell, the peculiar member of the immune system: A homeostatic aspect.

The mast cell is a member of the immune system having a basic role in allergic (anaphylactic) reactions. However, it contains, synthesizes, stores and secretes lots of substances, which initiates other reactions or participates in them. These are in connection with the deterioration of tissue correlation, as malignant tumors, angiogenesis, wound healing, pregnancy and different pathological conditions. In addition - as other members of the immune system - mast cells can synthesize, store and secrete hormones characteristic to the endocrine glands and can transport them to the site of requirement (packed transport), or produce and employ them locally. The effect of mast cells is controversial and frequently dual, stimulatory or inhibitory to the same organ or process. This is likely due to the heterogeneity of the mast cells, in morphology and cell content alike and dependent on the actual condition of the targeted tissue. The cells are transported in an unmatured form by the blood circulation and are exposed to microenvironmental effects, which influence their maturation. Their enrichment around tumors suggested using them as targets for tumor therapy more than fifty years ago (by the author), however, this idea lives its renaissance now. The review discusses the facts and ideas critically.