[Microbiological and parasitological risk analysis of novel food sources obtained with the use of insects].

The problem of food safety being an important component of the country's food security, provides not only for continuous improvement of the methodology of hygienic standardization, but also for the formation of requirements for novel food, in particular, those obtained from non-traditional sources. The accumulated practical and theoretical competence in the food hygiene area, as well as knowledge of current trends of the food base broadening, allow us to analyze the risks associated with novel food obtained of insects. The purpose of the research was to analyze the microbiological and parasitological risk of novel food sources obtained with the use of insects, suggest the effective risk management measures. Material and methods. The analytical part of the work included literature search, collection of information and statistical materials published in domestic and foreign scientific editions. The search was carried out using the Google Academy retrieval system and electronic databases (PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science, eLIBRARY), mainly in the last 25 years, using the keywords: Hermetia illucens, Tenebrio molitor, Acheta domesticus, insects, parasite, nematode, pathogen, cysts. Results. Based on the published materials' analysis, a systematization of microbiological and parasitological factors potentially capable of colonizing edible insects has been carried out. There were identified representatives of 24 groups of pathogenic and 18 opportunistic microorganisms and helminths related to microbial and parasitic pathogens, the spread of which is significantly influenced by inappropriate conditions of feeding and keeping insects. As there are currently no veterinary requirements for insect breeding and farming conditions, contamination of end products with infectious and parasitic pathogens can vary over a very wide range. Conclusion. The use of native insect biomass carries certain risks associated with its microbial and parasitic contamination, and the development of measures to prevent them requires significant resources. The possibility of deep processing of such raw materials can be considered as one of the solutions to mitigate these risks. For use in the food industry, insects should be subjected to processing similar to that currently used for soybean seeds, which includes separation of protein (entomoprotein), fat and chitin fractions, each of which would have an independent use. Thus, at present, insects should be considered as a source of novel food ingredients, first of all, complete protein of animal origin.

Effect of Diets with the Addition of Edible Insects on the Development of Atherosclerotic Lesions in ApoE/LDLR-/- Mice.

Foods enriched with insects can potentially prevent several health disorders, including cardiovascular diseases, by reducing inflammation and improving antioxidant status. In this study, Tenebrio molitor and Gryllus assimilis were selected to determine the effect on the development of atherosclerosis in ApoE/LDLR-/- mice. Animals were fed AIN-93G-based diets (control) with 10% Tenebrio molitor (TM) and 10% Gryllus assimilis (GA) for 8 weeks. The nutritional value as well as antioxidant activity of selected insects were determined. The lipid profile, liver enzyme activity, and the fatty acid composition of liver and adipose tissue of model mice were evaluated. Quantitative analysis of atherosclerotic lesions in the entire aorta was performed using the en face method, and for aortic roots, the cross-section method was used. The antioxidant status of the GA cricket was significantly higher compared to the TM larvae. The results showed that the area of atherosclerosis (en face method) was not significantly different between groups. Dietary GA reduced plaque formation in the aortic root; additionally, significant differences were observed in sections at 200 and 300 µm compared to other groups. Furthermore, liver enzyme ALT activity was lower in insect-fed groups compared to the control group. The finding suggests that a diet containing edible insect GA potentially prevents atherosclerotic plaque development in the aortic root, due to its high antioxidant activity.

The contribution of commonly consumed edible insects to nutrition security in the Eastern D.R. Congo.

Edible insects are perceived as an incredible opportunity to mitigate the major challenge of sustainably producing healthy foods for a growing world population in the face of climate change uncertainties over the coming decade. In this study, we assessed the nutrient composition and sensory properties of Acheta domesticus, Apis mellifera, Gnathocera trivittata, Gryllotalpa africana, Imbrasia epimethea, Imbrasia oyemensis, Locusta migratoria, Macrotermes subhylanus, Nomadacris septemfasciata, Rhyncophorus phoenicis, Ruspolia differens and Rhynchophorus ferrugineus consumed in Eastern D. R. Congo. The investigated edible insects are highly appreciated and nutritious, with proteins (20.67-43.93 g/100 g) and fats (14.53-36.02 g/100 g) being the major macro-nutrients, proving their potential to improve diets through food enrichment. The high potassium (24-386.67 mg/100 g), sodium (152-257.82 mg/100 g), magnesium (32-64 mg/100 g), iron (5.3-16.13 mg/100 g), calcium (25-156.67 mg/100 g) and zinc (11-19.67 mg/100 g) content make the assessed edible insects a useful mineral-containing ingredient for preventing undernutrition in countries which are plagued by micronutrient deficiencies. A scatter plot of matrices and Pearson's correlations between sensory attributes and nutritional composition showed a negative correlation (r = - 0.45) between protein and appearance. While no strong correlation was observed between nutritional attributes and sensory acceptance, a positive correlation was observed between potassium and aroma (r = 0.50), after-taste (r = 0.50) and acceptability (r = 0.52). Principal component analysis results indicated that the two axes accounted for up to 97.4% of the observed variability in the nutrient composition and sensory attributes of commonly consumed edible insects in the Eastern D. R. Congo. Given the significant delicacy and nutritional potential of edible insects highlighted in this paper, households can rely on the latter to meet their nutritional needs rather than conventional livestock, thus contributing to environmental and financial security through local business opportunities.

Edible insects: Understanding benzo(a)pyrene toxicokinetics in yellow mealworms for safe and sustainable consumption.

The global interest in edible insects as sustainable protein sources raises concerns about the bioaccumulation of contaminants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), to problematic levels. Understanding the accumulation dynamics of PAHs in edible insects is highly relevant due to the widespread sources and toxicological profiles; however, the bioaccumulative potential of PAHs in edible insects is unexplored. This study examined the uptake and elimination dynamics of benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P), a representative and carcinogenic PAH, in yellow mealworm larvae (YMW, Tenebrio molitor). Larvae were exposed to feeding substrate with varying B(a)P concentrations (0.03, 0.3, and 3 mg kg-1), and uptake (21 days in B(a)P-contaminated substrate) and elimination (21 days in B(a)P-free substrate) kinetics were subsequently assessed. The results showed that YMW can eliminate B(a)P, revealing dose-dependent B(a)P bioaccumulation in these insects. Larvae fed on a substrate with 0.03 mg kg-1 accumulated B(a)P over 21 days, presenting values of 0.049 (Standard deviation - 0.011) mg kg-1 and a kinetic-based (BAFkinetic) of 1.93 g substrate g organism-1, exceeding the EU regulatory limits for food. However, with a B(a)P half-life (DT50) of 4.19 days in the larvae, an EU legislation safety criterion was met after a 13-day depuration period in clean substrate. Larvae exposed to substrates with 0.3 and 3 mg kg-1 showed B(a)P accumulation, with BAFkinetic values of 3.27 and 2.09 g substrate g organism-1, respectively, not meeting the current legal standards for food consumption at the end of the exposure to B(a)P. Although the B(a)P half-life values after 35 days were 4.30 and 10.22 days (DT50s), the larvae retained B(a)P levels exceeding permitted food safety limits. These findings highlight a significant oversight in regulating PAHs in animal feed and the need for comprehensive safety evaluations of PAH hazards in edible insects for improved PAH feeding guidelines.

Low protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score and net nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor value of edible insects.

The amount of chitin, a nitrogen-containing dietary fiber, in edible insects can mislead the exact nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor (NPF) and true protein content. We determined the amino acid score (AAS), protein digestibility-corrected AAS (PDCAAS), chitin content, and net NPF of five edible insects. Additionally, the effect of the amino acid composition of migratory locust on rat growth were investigated. The AAS of the insects were ranged from 63 to 94. The chitin contents were ranged from 1.6 g/100 g to 10.7 g/100 g. The PDCAAS, calculated by AAS and gut-intestinal digestibility, ranged from 44 to 81, which was lower than casein (97). The net NPF ranged from 4.93 to 5.76, which were lower than the conventional value. Dietary migratory locust, whose PDCAAS was the lowest, decreased growth and altered lipid metabolism. Therefore, a lower PDCAAS and overestimation of net NPF of insects can affect the true protein calculations and growth.

Entomophagy and entomo-therapeutic practices in a mountainous territory in southeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China.

BACKGROUND: Although China has a long history of using insects as food and medicine and has developed numerous associated knowledge and practices, especially in its rural and mountainous areas, systematic surveys concerning this subject are limited. In-depth ethnobiological research is needed to compile a comprehensive database of edible and medicinal insects and record the associated knowledge of these food and medicinal resources. METHODS: Data on edible and medicinal insects and associated knowledge about them were collected by interviewing 216 local villagers in a mountainous territory in southeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. RESULTS: Local villagers used at least 16 edible and 9 medicinal insects, of which 4 wasp species were used in both entomophagy and medicinal practices. Parapolybia varia, Polistes olivaceus, and Anomala chamaeleon were newly recorded edible insects in China. The wasps, Euconocephalus sp., Gryllotalpa orientalis, and Cyrtotrachelus longimanus, were preferred and culturally important edible insects. Populations of Euconocephalus sp. and G. orientalis were reported to have substantially decreased in recent years. Wasps and a bamboo bee were used to treat rheumatism, while cockroaches and antlions were used to treat common cold symptoms in infants. Insect-related knowledge was positively correlated with the interviewees' age. CONCLUSIONS: Villagers have accumulated considerable local and traditional knowledge of entomophagy and entomo-therapeutic practices. However, this knowledge is in danger of being lost, which highlights the urgent need to document this information. Edible insects enrich local diets, and a more sustainable supply (such as through insect farming) could maintain local entomophagy practices. Medicinal insects are a part of local folk medicine, and pharmacological and chemical techniques could be applied to identify various biologically active substances in these insects.

Nutritional composition of edible wood borer beetle larvae in Kenya.

Exploration of edible insects as sustainable alternative nutrient-dense sources such as nutraceuticals have attracted more and more global attention recently. However, research on wood borer beetles have largely been overlooked. This study assessed the entomo-chemical properties of Titoceres jaspideus (Cerambycidae) and Passalus punctiger (Passalidae), which are widely consumed in many African countries, including Kenya. The crude protein content of the beetle larvae ranged between 27.5-39.8 mg BSA/g. In comparison with those of cereals, amino acids such as lysine (7.9-9.9 mg/g), methionine (0.48-0.64 mg/g) and threonine (2.31-2.55 mg/g) were considerably high in the larvae. Methyl-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoate and methyl-9Z-octadecenoate were the predominant polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, respectively. High total phenols (>4.4 mg GAE/g), flavonoids (>3.6 mg QE/g) and anti-oxidative activities (>67%) were recorded for both larvae. This implies that increasing the consumption of wood-borer beetle larvae would positively impact the state of the natural environment and reduce the problem of malnutrition in the society. Thus, applying these strategies to develop insect food in a more familiar form can help to make insect-enriched foods more appealing to consumers, facilitating their widespread adoption as a sustainable and nutritious food source.

Development of a lexicon for the sensory description of edible insects commercially available in Australia.

Sensory lexicons provide an important tool for describing the sensory properties of emerging, unfamiliar foods such as edible insects. This study sought to establish and validate a sensory lexicon for the description and differentiation of edible insects commercially available in Australia and prepared using common preservation and cooking methods (freeze-drying, hot-air drying, roasting, sautéing and deep-frying). Five species were evaluated, including house crickets (Acheta domesticus), yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor), king mealworm larvae (Zophobas morio), tyrant ants (Iridomyrmex spp.) and green tree ants (Oecophylla smaragdina). Following generic descriptive sensory analysis methods, a trained panel (n=8) developed a sensory lexicon of 29 aroma and flavour descriptors, and 16 texture descriptors. Vocabulary were then categorised and ordered to generate a sensory wheel. Due to a lack of cross-over in sensory attributes between species, sub-categories of species-specific vocabulary were also generated for each insect. The lexicon enabled sensory profiling of commercially available edible insect samples which revealed large variation in aroma, flavour, and texture attributes due to both species and preparation method. This work provides a platform for development of a globally relevant edible insect sensory lexicon. International collaboration will enable expansion of the lexicon for use with other insect species and preparation methods, insect-derived ingredients (such as insect powder, defatted insect powder and textured insect protein) and in different cultural settings. As the industry grows, the applicability of vocabulary for differentiating within species and between competitive products should also be assessed.

Edible insects as a novel source of lecithin: Extraction and lipid characterization of black soldier fly larvae and yellow mealworm.

Edible insects with high fat and phosphorus content are a potential novel source of lecithin, however, studies on their minor lipids are limited. In this study, lecithin was extracted from black soldier fly larvae and yellow mealworm. Herein, the effects of lecithin extraction method, matrix and ultrasound pretreatment were explored based on the fatty acid composition and phospholipid profile with soy lecithin as a reference. The use of a wet matrix and ultrasound pretreatment increased the extraction efficiency of total PLs from both insects. Insect lecithin contained a considerable amount of sphingomyelin compared to soy lecithin. In insect lecithin, a total of 47 glycerophospholipid and sphingomyelin molecular species, as well as four molecular species of fatty acyl esters of hydroxy fatty acid, were detected. This study is the first comprehensive investigation of insects as a new source of lecithin with applications in food, cosmetics and in the pharmaceutical industry.

Consumers of insect-based foods: a cross-cultural study between Belgium and Gabon.

Human consumption of insects has previously been examined in cross-cultural studies. However, such studies rarely include African countries and willingness-to-pay for insect-based food has never been assessed in cross-cultural studies. The current study presents a cross-cultural study conducted with 409 urban dwellers from Belgium (191 males; 218 females) and 412 urban dwellers from Gabon (219 males; 193 females). Each respondent was surveyed with a questionnaire following the Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices model and included questions relative to willingness-to-pay for 2 insect-based foods (insect baguette and insect burger). More than 90% of respondents from both countries were familiar with edible insects. However, acceptance of entomophagy was lower in respondents from Gabon than in respondents from Belgium. Intercultural differences were also recorded between Gabonese ethnic groups. Most respondents who accepted entomophagy were willing to eat the insect baguette and/or the insect burger. These findings confirm that entomophagy could further develop in Belgium and Gabon. Willingness-to-pay varied between countries and between insect-based foods. In Belgium, the average prices of comparable conventional foods (i.e., same foods but without insects) were lower than the average willingness-to-pay for insect-based foods. In Gabon, respondents were not willing to pay extra for insect-based foods. Setting the right price for insect-based foods is a necessary step to promote more frequent insect consumption.

Molecular Characterization of the Allergenic Arginine Kinase from the Edible Insect Hermetia illucens (Black Soldier Fly).

SCOPE: Arginine kinase (AK) is an important enzyme for energy metabolism of invertebrate cells by participating in the maintenance of constant levels of ATP. However, AK is also recognized as a major allergen in insects and crustaceans capable of cross-reactivity with sera of patients sensitized to orthologous proteins. In the perspective of introducing insects or their derivatives in the human diet in Western world, it is of primary importance to evaluate possible risks for allergic consumers. METHODS AND RESULTS: This work reports the identification and characterization of AK from Hermetia illucens commonly known as the black soldier fly, a promising insect for human consumption. To evaluate allergenicity of AK from H. illucens, putative linear and conformational epitopes are identified by bioinformatics analyses, and Dot-Blot assays are carried out by using sera of patients allergic to shrimp or mites to validate the cross-reactivity. Gastrointestinal digestion reduces significantly the linear epitopes resulting in lower allergenicity, while the secondary structure is altered at increasing temperatures supporting the possible loss or reduction of conformational epitopes. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that the possible allergenicity of AK should be taken in consideration when dealing with novel foods containing H. illucens or its derivatives.

Assessing the impact of insect protein sources on intestinal health and disease: insights from human ex vivo and rat in vivo models.

The exploration of edible insects, specifically Alphitobius diaperinus and Tenebrio molitor, as sustainable sources of protein for human consumption is an emerging field. However, research into their effects on intestinal health, especially in relation to inflammation and permeability, remains limited. Using ex vivo and in vivo models of intestinal health and disease, in this study we assess the impact of the above insects on intestinal function by focusing on inflammation, barrier dysfunction and morphological changes. Initially, human intestinal explants were exposed to in vitro-digested extracts of these insects, almond and beef. Immune secretome analysis showed that the inflammatory response to insect-treated samples was comparatively lower than it was for samples exposed to almond and beef. Animal studies using yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and buffalo (Alphitobius diaperinus) flours were then used to evaluate their safety in healthy rats and LPS-induced intestinal dysfunction rats. Chronic administration of these insect-derived flours showed no adverse effects on behavior, metabolism, intestinal morphology or immune response (such as inflammation or allergy markers) in healthy Wistar rats. Notably, in rats subjected to proinflammatory LPS-induced intestinal dysfunction, T. molitor consumption did not exacerbate symptoms, nor did it increase allergic responses. These findings validate the safety of these edible insects under healthy conditions, demonstrate their innocuity in a model of intestinal dysfunction, and underscore their promise as sustainable and nutritionally valuable dietary protein sources.

Analysis of Microbial Composition of Edible Insect Products Available for Human Consumption within the United States Using Traditional Microbiological Methods and Whole Genome Sequencing.

Edible insects offer a promising protein source for humans, but their food safety risks have not been previously investigated within the United States. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the microbial content of processed edible insect products. A total of eight different types of edible insect products, including diving beetles, silkworms, grasshoppers, Jamaican crickets, mealworms, mole crickets, whole roasted crickets, and 100% pure cricket powder, were purchased from a large online retailer for the analysis. All the products were purchased in August 2022 and examined between August 2022 and November 2022. Traditional microbiological methods were employed to determine microbial counts for each product type using three replicates (total number of samples = 24). This included assessing aerobic bacterial spore, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, total viable counts, and the presence of Salmonella. Additionally, whole genome sequencing was employed to further characterize selected colonies (n = 96). Microbial counts data were statistically analyzed using one-way ANOVA, while sequence data were taxonomically classified using Sepia.Bacilluscereusgroup isolates underwent additional characterization with Btyper3. Product type significantly influenced total viable counts, bacterial spore counts, and lactic acid bacteria counts (P = 0.00391, P = 0.0065, and P < 0.001, respectively), with counts ranging from < 1.70 to 6.01 Log10 CFU/g, <1.70 to 5.25 Log10 CFU/g, and < 1.70 to 4.86 Log10 CFU/g, respectively. Enterobacteriaceae were only detected in mole crickets (<2.30 Log10 CFU/g) and house cricket powder (<2.15 Log10 CFU/g). All samples were negative for Salmonella. Whole genome sequencing revealed the presence of 12 different bacterial genera among the analyzed isolates, with a majority belonging to the Bacillus genus. Some of the isolates of Bacillus cereus group were identified as biovar Emeticus. Overall, although edible insects offer a promising food alternative, the presence of Bacillus cereus group in some products could raise concerns regarding food safety.

Edible insects in food.

Edible insects, with their high protein and lipid content, offer a safe and cost-effective alternative to traditional protein sources. They are environmentally friendly, emitting fewer greenhouse gases and requiring less water than livestock farming. Their rapid reproduction, efficiency, and labor-saving qualities make them attractive for industry. However, the unappealing appearance of edible insects hinders consumer acceptance. To overcome this, materialization technologies should be developed, and negative perceptions addressed with objective data. Promoting the nutritional value, safe rearing, disease prevention, and cost-efficiency of edible insects can boost consumer interest. Commercializing various insect products is crucial to revitalize their integration into the food industry.

Ethno-entomotherapeutic and metabolite profiling of Coridius chinensis (Dallas), a traditional edible insect species of North-East India.

Edible insects possess several health enhancing properties and play an important role in human nutrition. Coridius chinensis is an edible insect that is considered food and claimed as traditional medicine. In the present study, nutritional contents, chemical composition, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties of C. chinensis were analyzed. It was found that the insect sample contains 50.46% moisture, 44.65% protein, 4.45% carbohydrate, 39.42% crude fats, 3.53% ash and 576.11 (Kcal/100 g) energy. Our study highlighted the presence of a significant amount of phenol and flavonoids. The C. chinensis hydro-alcoholic extract showed high antioxidant property and anti-inflammatory activity. GCMS analysis identified 61 volatile compounds. LC-MS analysis of hydroalcoholic extract of C. chinensis revealed the presence of compounds such as etodolac glucuronide, morphine 3-glucuronide, ecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, sufentanil, and palmitoyl ethanololamide. These findings suggest that C. chinensis species can be employed as a valuable food source with excellent therapeutic properties.

Recent advances in edible insect processing technologies.

Alternative foods have emerged as one of the hot research topics aiming at alleviating food shortage. Insects are one of the alternative foods due to their rich nutrients. Processing is a critical step to develop insect foods, while there is a lack of comprehensive reviews to summarize the main studies. This review aims to demonstrate different processing methods in terms of their impact on insect nutrition and their potential risks. Heat treatments such as boiling and blanching show a negative effect on insect nutrition, but essential to assure food safety. Insects treated by high-pressure hydrostatic technology (HPP) and cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) can achieve a similar sterilization effect but retain the nutritional and sensory properties. Drying is a practical processing method for industrial insect production, where oven drying serves as a cost-effective method yielding products comparable in quality to freeze-dried ones. In terms of extraction technology, supercritical carbon dioxide and ultrasound-assisted technology can improve the extraction efficiency of proteins and lipids from insects, enhance the production of composite insect-fortified foods, and thus facilitate the development of the insect food industry. To address the widespread negative perceptions and low acceptance towards insect foods among consumers, the primary development direction of the insect food industry may involve creating composite fortified foods and extracting insect-based food components.

Understanding consumers attitude towards insects as food: Influence of insect species on liking, emotions, sensory perception and food pairing.

Entomophagy studies mainly focused on insects as a generic category, rarely considering insect species. This study investigated the: i) affective response to specific edible insect species; ii) sensory properties characterizing the tested insects and their role in driving preferences and food paring. A sensory test (85 consumers, 56.5 % female, 19-73 years) was performed on seven dried whole edible insects at the adult (weaver ants, crickets, grasshoppers), larva (bamboo worms, morio worms, sago worms) and pupae stage (silkworms). For each species, consumers expressed their liking and, through three check-all-that-apply tests, described the perceived sensory properties, the perceived emotions, and their potential food pairings. Results showed a significant effect of the species on all variables. Bamboo worms, weaver ants and grasshoppers resulted the most accepted, followed by morio worms, crickets, and silkworms, while the sago worms were the most disliked. Numerous sensory attributes significantly discriminated among insect species and the drivers of liking and sensory attributes associated to the food pairings were identified. However, two clusters with different preferences and drivers of liking were observed. Moreover, a gender effect was found: i) males associated insects with emotions like calm and wild, while females with glad and pleased; ii) males and females would pair different foods with the insect species. In conclusion, this study provided new knowledge useful for researchers and food industry to develop future insect-based foods and dishes able to meet the expectations of different consumers segments.

Should we provide edible insects in children's diets?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Diets low in animal-source foods or solely consisting of plant-based foods, hardly meet nutrition needs of children, exposing them to inadequate intake of essential nutrients. Thus, including edible insects in children's diets is relevant for meeting nutritional requirements, other potential health benefits, and building more sustainable food systems. Nutrition and health research on insects is novel and still limited. This review covers recently published research between April 2022 and November 2023 focusing on the relevance of including insects in children's diets. RECENT FINDINGS: Insects provide protein, fat and micronutrients, and are generally nutritionally equivalent to animal-source foods. The protein and fat quality of edible insects varies depending on several factors. Insects also contain chitin which could potentially be beneficial for gut health. For insects to be considered suitable for inclusion in children's diet, they must be accepted. However, children who are unfamiliar with insects respond to them with curiosity and disgust. SUMMARY: Insect farming can enhance their availability and consumption, potentially addressing nutrition gaps. Furthermore, transitioning from occasional to regular insect consumption requires actual exposure and integration into diets of insects. To affirm the nutrition and health potential of edible insects for children, well designed human studies are essential.

Edible insects as a source of biopeptides and their role in immunonutrition.

Many edible insect species are attracting the attention of the food industry and consumers in Western societies due to their high content and quality of protein, and consequently, the potential to be used as a more environmentally friendly dietary source could be beneficial for humans. On the other hand, prevention of inflammatory diseases using nutritional interventions is currently being proposed as a sustainable and cost-effective strategy to improve people's health. In this regard, finding bioactive compounds such as peptides with anti-inflammatory properties from sustainable sources (e.g., edible insects) is one area of particular interest, which might have a relevant role in immunonutrition. This review aims to summarize the recent literature on the discovery of immunomodulatory peptides through in vitro studies from edible insects, as well as to describe cell-based assays aiming to prove their bioactivity. On top of that, in vivo studies (i.e., animal and human), although scarce, have been mentioned in relation to the topic. In addition, the challenges and future perspectives related to edible-insect peptides and their role in immunonutrition are discussed. The amount of literature aiming to demonstrate the potential immunomodulatory activity of edible-insect peptides is scarce but promising. Different approaches have been employed, especially cell assays and animal studies employing insect meal as supplementation in the diet. Insects such as Tenebrio molitor or Gryllodes sigillatus are some of the most studied and have demonstrated to contain bioactive peptides. Further investigations, mostly with humans, are needed in order to clearly state that peptides from edible insects may contribute to the modulation of the immune system.

Proximate and fatty acid profile analysis of Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio using different killing methods.

The present work aimed to quantify the macronutrients and the fatty acid (FA) profile in different killing methods, blanching (BC) and freezing (FR), on edible insects of the speciesTenebrio molitor(TM) andZophobas morio(ZM). Concerning macronutrients TM-BC and TM-FR presented 51.2% and 50.6% of protein, 28% and 29.4% of lipids, and 12.4% and 11.4%. Meanwhile, ZM-BC and ZM-FR expressed 42.8% and 43.7% of protein, 39.1% and 40.1% of lipids, and 10.7% and 8.9% of carbohydrates. The FA of TM and ZM shows respectively values of Saturated Fatty Acids (∑SFA) 30% - 45%, Monounsaturated (MUFA) 47% - 32%, Polyunsaturated (∑PUFA) 23% - 22%, Atherogenicity Index (AI) 0.64 - 0.75, Thrombogenicity Index (TI) 0.77 - 1.44 and hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic index (h/H) of 2.50-1.51. Based on the results obtained, the slaughter methods showed statistically differences in relation to MUFA's in TM, and ZM larvae only in the minority fraction of FA.