MAIT cells protect against pulmonary Legionella longbeachae infection.

Mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells recognise conserved microbial metabolites from riboflavin synthesis. Striking evolutionary conservation and pulmonary abundance implicate them in antibacterial host defence, yet their functions in protection against clinically important pathogens are unknown. Here we show that mouse Legionella longbeachae infection induces MR1-dependent MAIT cell activation and rapid pulmonary accumulation of MAIT cells associated with immune protection detectable in immunocompetent host animals. MAIT cell protection is more evident in mice lacking CD4+ cells, and adoptive transfer of MAIT cells rescues immunodeficient Rag2-/-γC-/- mice from lethal Legionella infection. Protection is dependent on MR1, IFN-γ and GM-CSF, but not IL-17A, TNF or perforin, and enhanced protection is detected earlier after infection of mice antigen-primed to boost MAIT cell numbers before infection. Our findings define a function for MAIT cells in protection against a major human pathogen and indicate a potential role for vaccination to enhance MAIT cell immunity.

Legionella longbeachae Is Immunologically Silent and Highly Virulent In Vivo.

BACKGROUND: Legionella longbeachae (Llo) and Legionella pneumophila (Lpn) are the most common pneumonia-causing agents of the genus. Although both species can be lethal to humans and are highly prevalent, little is known about the molecular pathogenesis of Llo infections. In murine models of infection, Lpn infection is self-limited, whereas Llo infection is lethal. METHODS: We used mouse macrophages, human macrophages, human epithelial cells, and mouse infections in vivo to evaluate multiple parameters of the infection. RESULTS: We determined that the Llo Dot/Icm secretion system is critical for virulence. Different than Lpn, Llo disseminates and the animals develop a severe pulmonary failure, as demonstrated by lung mechanics and blood oxygenation assays. As compared to Lpn, Llo is immunologically silent and fails to trigger the production of cytokines in human pulmonary epithelial cells and in mouse and human macrophages. Infections in Tnfr1-/-, Ifng-/-, and Il12p40-/- mice supported the participation of cytokines for the resistance phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: Both Lpn and Llo require the Dot/Icm system for pathogenesis, but the infection outcome is strikingly different. Llo is immunologically silent, highly virulent, and lethal. The differences reported herein may reflect unappreciated clinical differences in patients infected with Lpn or Llo.

Cutaneous Legionella longbeachae Infection in Immunosuppressed Woman, United Kingdom.

We report a rare case of cutaneous Legionella longbeachae infection in a patient receiving long-term corticosteroids for immune thrombocytopenia. Such infections cannot be identified by using Legionella urinary antigen testing but are commonly seen after exposure to commercial potting compost, particularly in immunocompromised patients.

[Molecular identification, phylogenic and virulence analysis of a Legionella strain isolated from aquatic environment].

OBJECTIVE: CD-1 was isolated from aquatic environment, which grew with strict L-cysteine dependence. In this study, we applied molecular methods to identify CD-1, and animal test to understand its virulence. METHODS: To identify CD-1 strain, CD-1 strain was tested for genus-specific 16S rRNA of Legionella via PCR amplification, then its rpoB gene was sequenced for phylogenic analysis. To understand the virulence, CD-1 was detected for mip gene, which was an indispensable virulent gene of Legionella. Then, BABL/c mice were infected by CD-1 in different dosages. RESULTS: For identification, CD-1 was positive for genus-specific 16S rRNA of Legionella, while in the phylogenic tree CD-1 was a sister to Legionella longbeachae with high posterior probability (PP = 1.00). For the virulence analysis, CD-1 was positive for mip gene detection. In the animal test, all mice tested died when the infection dose of CD-1 strain reached 10(7) cfu/mL. CONCLUSION: CD-1 strain was identified to be Legionella longbeachae with strong virulence to BALB/c mice. It may be a potential virulent strain to human. This is the first strain of Legionella longbeachae isolated in Sichuan province, and this is the first virulence analysis of Legionella strain isolated from aquatic environment in China.

Analysis of the Legionella longbeachae genome and transcriptome uncovers unique strategies to cause Legionnaires' disease.

Legionella pneumophila and L. longbeachae are two species of a large genus of bacteria that are ubiquitous in nature. L. pneumophila is mainly found in natural and artificial water circuits while L. longbeachae is mainly present in soil. Under the appropriate conditions both species are human pathogens, capable of causing a severe form of pneumonia termed Legionnaires' disease. Here we report the sequencing and analysis of four L. longbeachae genomes, one complete genome sequence of L. longbeachae strain NSW150 serogroup (Sg) 1, and three draft genome sequences another belonging to Sg1 and two to Sg2. The genome organization and gene content of the four L. longbeachae genomes are highly conserved, indicating strong pressure for niche adaptation. Analysis and comparison of L. longbeachae strain NSW150 with L. pneumophila revealed common but also unexpected features specific to this pathogen. The interaction with host cells shows distinct features from L. pneumophila, as L. longbeachae possesses a unique repertoire of putative Dot/Icm type IV secretion system substrates, eukaryotic-like and eukaryotic domain proteins, and encodes additional secretion systems. However, analysis of the ability of a dotA mutant of L. longbeachae NSW150 to replicate in the Acanthamoeba castellanii and in a mouse lung infection model showed that the Dot/Icm type IV secretion system is also essential for the virulence of L. longbeachae. In contrast to L. pneumophila, L. longbeachae does not encode flagella, thereby providing a possible explanation for differences in mouse susceptibility to infection between the two pathogens. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis revealed that L. longbeachae has a less pronounced biphasic life cycle as compared to L. pneumophila, and genome analysis and electron microscopy suggested that L. longbeachae is encapsulated. These species-specific differences may account for the different environmental niches and disease epidemiology of these two Legionella species.

Legionnaires' disease caused by Legionella longbeachae and Legionella pneumophila: comparison of clinical features, host-related risk factors, and outcomes.

Legionnaires' disease remains an important cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Disease caused by Legionella pneumophila has been extensively studied, and its clinical characteristics have been well described. There is, however, little information on disease caused by Legionella longbeachae, despite its importance in some countries. We undertook a retrospective review of culture-positive cases of Legionnaires' disease in the Canterbury region of New Zealand over 10 years, in order to compare the clinical features and outcomes of Legionnaires' disease caused by these two species.

Virulence factors encoded by Legionella longbeachae identified on the basis of the genome sequence analysis of clinical isolate D-4968.

Legionella longbeachae causes most cases of legionellosis in Australia and may be underreported worldwide due to the lack of L. longbeachae-specific diagnostic tests. L. longbeachae displays distinctive differences in intracellular trafficking, caspase 1 activation, and infection in mouse models compared to Legionella pneumophila, yet these two species have indistinguishable clinical presentations in humans. Unlike other legionellae, which inhabit freshwater systems, L. longbeachae is found predominantly in moist soil. In this study, we sequenced and annotated the genome of an L. longbeachae clinical isolate from Oregon, isolate D-4968, and compared it to the previously published genomes of L. pneumophila. The results revealed that the D-4968 genome is larger than the L. pneumophila genome and has a gene order that is different from that of the L. pneumophila genome. Genes encoding structural components of type II, type IV Lvh, and type IV Icm/Dot secretion systems are conserved. In contrast, only 42/140 homologs of genes encoding L. pneumophila Icm/Dot substrates have been found in the D-4968 genome. L. longbeachae encodes numerous proteins with eukaryotic motifs and eukaryote-like proteins unique to this species, including 16 ankyrin repeat-containing proteins and a novel U-box protein. We predict that these proteins are secreted by the L. longbeachae Icm/Dot secretion system. In contrast to the L. pneumophila genome, the L. longbeachae D-4968 genome does not contain flagellar biosynthesis genes, yet it contains a chemotaxis operon. The lack of a flagellum explains the failure of L. longbeachae to activate caspase 1 and trigger pyroptosis in murine macrophages. These unique features of L. longbeachae may reflect adaptation of this species to life in soil.

Experimental Legionella longbeachae infection in intratracheally inoculated mice.

This study established an experimental model of replicative Legionella longbeachae infection in A/J mice. The animals were infected by intratracheal inoculation of 10(3)-10(9) c.f.u. L. longbeachae serogroup 1 (USA clinical isolates D4968, D4969 and D4973). The inocula of 10(9), 10(8), 10(7) and 10(6) c.f.u. of all tested L. longbeachae serogroup 1 isolates were lethal for A/J mice. Inoculation of 10(5) c.f.u. L. longbeachae caused death in 90 % of the animals within 5 days, whilst inoculation of 10(4) c.f.u. caused sporadic death of mice. All animals that received 10(3) c.f.u. bacteria developed acute lower respiratory disease, but were able to clear Legionella from the lungs within 3 weeks. The kinetics of bacterial growth in the lungs was independent of inoculum size and reached a growth peak about 3 logarithms above the initial inoculum at 72 h after inoculation. The most prominent histological changes in the lungs were observed at 48-72 h after inoculation in the form of a focal, neutrophil-dominant, peribronchiolar infiltration. The inflammatory process did not progress towards the interstitial or alveolar spaces. Immunohistological analyses revealed L. longbeachae serogroup 1 during the early phase of infection near the bronchiolar epithelia and later co-localized with inflammatory cells. BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice strains were also susceptible to infection with all L. longbeachae serogroup 1 strains tested and very similar changes were observed in the lungs of infected animals. These results underline the infection potential of L. longbeachae serogroup 1, which is associated with high morbidity and lethality in mice.

Early trafficking and intracellular replication of Legionella longbeachaea within an ER-derived late endosome-like phagosome.

Legionella pneumophila is the predominant cause of Legionnaires' disease in the USA and Europe in contrast to Legionella longbeachaea, which is the leading cause of the disease in Western Australia. The ability of L. pneumophila to replicate intracellularly is triggered at the post-exponential phase along with expression of other virulence traits, such as motility. We show that while motility of L. longbeachaea is triggered upon growth transition into post-exponential phase, its ability to proliferate intracellularly is totally independent of the bacterial growth phase. Within macrophages, L. pneumophila replicates in a phagosome that excludes early and late endocytic markers and is surrounded by the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). In contrast, the L. longbeachaea phagosome colocalizes with the early endosomal marker early endosomal antigen 1 (EEA1) and the late endosomal markers lysosomal associated membrane glycoprotein 2 (LAMP-2) and mannose 6-phosphate receptor (M6PR), and is surrounded by the RER. The L. longbeachaea phagosome does not colocalize with the vacuolar ATPase (vATPase) proton pump, and the lysosomal luminal protease Cathepsin D, or the lysosomal tracer Texas red Ovalbumin (TROV). Intracellular proliferation of L. longbeachaea occurs in LAMP-2-positive phagosomes that are remodelled by the RER. Despite their distinct trafficking, both L. longbeachaea and L. pneumophila can replicate in communal phagosomes whose biogenesis is predominantly modulated by L. longbeachaea into LAMP-2-positive phagosomes. In addition, the L. pneumophila dotA mutant is rescued for intracellular replication if it co-inhabits the phagosome with L. longbeachaea. During late stages of infection, L. longbeachaea escape into the cytoplasm, prior to lysis of the macrophage, similar to L. pneumophila. We conclude that the L. longbeachaea phagosome matures to a non-acidified late endosome-like stage that is remodelled by the RER, indicating an idiosyncratic trafficking of L. longbeachaea compared with other intracellular pathogens, and a divergence in its intracellular lifestyle from L. pneumophila. In addition, re-routing biogenesis of the L. pneumophila phagosome into a late endosome controlled by L. longbeachaea has no effect on intracellular replication.

Genetic susceptibility and caspase activation in mouse and human macrophages are distinct for Legionella longbeachae and L. pneumophila.

Legionella pneumophila is the predominant cause of Legionnaires' disease in the United States and Europe, while Legionella longbeachae is the common cause of the disease in Western Australia. Although clinical manifestations by both intracellular pathogens are very similar, recent studies have shown that phagosome biogeneses of both species within human macrophages are distinct (R. Asare and Y. Abu Kwaik, Cell. Microbiol., in press). Most inbred mouse strains are resistant to infection by L. pneumophila, with the exception of the A/J mouse strain, and this genetic susceptibility is associated with polymorphism in the naip5 allele and flagellin-mediated early activation of caspase 1 and pyropoptosis in nonpermissive mouse macrophages. Here, we show that genetic susceptibility of mice to infection by L. longbeachae is independent of allelic polymorphism of naip5. L. longbeachae replicates within bone marrow-derived macrophages and in the lungs of A/J, C57BL/6, and BALB/c mice, while L. pneumophila replicates in macrophages in vitro and in the lungs of the A/J mouse strain only. Quantitative real-time PCR studies on infected A/J and C57BL/6 mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages show that both L. longbeachae and L. pneumophila trigger similar levels of naip5 expression, but the levels are higher in infected C57BL/6 mouse macrophages. In contrast to L. pneumophila, L. longbeachae has no detectable pore-forming activity and does not activate caspase 1 in A/J and C57BL/6 mouse or human macrophages, despite flagellation. Unlike L. pneumophila, L. longbeachae triggers only a modest activation of caspase 3 and low levels of apoptosis in human and murine macrophages in vitro and in the lungs of infected mice at late stages of infection. We conclude that despite flagellation, infection by L. longbeachae is independent of polymorphism in the naip5 allele and L. longbeachae does not trigger the activation of caspase 1, caspase 3, or late-stage apoptosis in mouse and human macrophages. Neither species triggers caspase 1 activation in human macrophages.