Evaluation and Management of Fetal Macrosomia.

Macrosomia results from abnormal fetal growth and can lead to serious consequences for the mother and fetus. In cases of suspected macrosomia, patients must be counseled carefully regarding a delivery plan, and Cesarean section should be considered when indicated. Techniques to assess for suspected macrosomia include clinical measurements, ultrasound, and MRI.

Induction of labor versus expectant management among women with macrosomic neonates: a retrospective study.

Background: The macrosomic fetus predisposes a variety of adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes. Although older studies have shown no benefit in inducing women of suspected macrosomic fetuses, more updated studies show different information.Objectives: The aim of our study was to compare induction of labor versus expectant management among women with macrosomic neonates weighing more than 4000 g at term (between 37°/7 and 416/7 weeks' gestation).Study design: This was a retrospective cohort study of all live-born singleton pregnancies with macrosomic newborns who were delivered at our institution between 1 January 2000 and 1 June 2015. We compared the outcomes of induction of labor, at each gestational age (GA), between 37 and 41 weeks (study group) with ongoing pregnancy. The primary outcome was cesarean section (CS) rate. Secondary outcomes were composite maternal and neonatal outcome and birth injuries.Results: Overall, out of 3095 patients with macrosomic newborns who were included in the study, 795 women (25.7%) underwent induction of labor. The cesarean section rate was not found to be significantly different between the groups at all gestational ages, nor was the vaginal delivery rate. After adjusting for confounders, induction of labor at 40 and 41 weeks' gestation was associated with composite maternal outcome (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.6, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3-2.1; aOR 1.7, 95% CI: 1.3-2.2, respectively) and composite neonatal outcome (aOR 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1-2.4; aOR 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1-2.9). Induction of labor at 40 weeks' gestation was also associated with increased risk of birth injuries (aOR 2.9, 95% CI: 1.4-6).Conclusions: Compared with ongoing pregnancy, induction of labor of women with macrosomic neonates between 37 and 41 weeks of gestation does not reduce the CS rate, nor does it increase the vaginal delivery rate. Moreover, induction of labor of those women beyond 39 weeks' gestation is associated with composite adverse maternal/neonatal outcome, specifically birth injuries.

Macrosomia: ACOG Practice Bulletin Summary, Number 216.

Suspected macrosomia is encountered commonly in obstetric practice. As birth weight increases, the likelihood of labor abnormalities, shoulder dystocia, birth trauma, and permanent injury to the newborn increases. The purpose of this document is to quantify those risks, address the accuracy and limitations of methods for estimating fetal weight, and suggest clinical management for a pregnancy with suspected macrosomia. This document has been revised to include recent literature and updated information on the prevention of macrosomia.

Macrosomia: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 216.

Suspected macrosomia is encountered commonly in obstetric practice. As birth weight increases, the likelihood of labor abnormalities, shoulder dystocia, birth trauma, and permanent injury to the newborn increases. The purpose of this document is to quantify those risks, address the accuracy and limitations of methods for estimating fetal weight, and suggest clinical management for a pregnancy with suspected macrosomia. This document has been revised to include recent literature and updated information on the prevention of macrosomia.

Does prenatal identification of fetal macrosomia change management and outcome?

PURPOSE: To assess whether there is an association between predicted fetal macrosomia and adverse outcomes in macrosomic newborns (> 4000 g), based on a sonographic evaluation up to 2 weeks prior to delivery. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of 3098 mothers of macrosomic babies who were delivered at our institution (2000-2015). We compared the management and outcomes of women with predicted fetal macrosomia with that of women with unknown fetal macrosomia. The primary outcomes were cesarean section (CS) rate and postpartum hemorrhage. Secondary outcomes were composite maternal and neonatal outcomes and birth injuries. RESULTS: In 601 (19.4%) women fetal macrosomia was predicted, and in 2497 (80.6%) women, fetal macrosomia was unknown. CS rate was more than 3.5 times higher in the group of predicted macrosomia (47.2% vs. 12.7%, P < 0.001) than those with unpredicted macrosomia; not only due to non-progressive labor, but for non-reassuring heart rate as well. However, predicted fetal macrosomia reduced the risk of postpartum hemorrhage (aOR 0.5, 95% CI 0.2-1.0), maternal (aOR 0.3, 95% CI 0.2-0.5) and neonatal composite adverse outcomes (aOR 0.7 95% CI 0.6-0.9). It was also associated with increased risk for induction of labor, episiotomy, 3rd- or 4th-degree tears and a longer maternal hospitalization. Birth injuries and shoulder dystocia were not different between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Antepartum CS was found to be associated with predicted fetal macrosomia. Moreover, a planned CS due to macrosomia was associated with reduced risk for postpartum hemorrhage, maternal and neonatal outcome, even for babies with a mean birth weight < 4500 g.

Induction of labour for suspected macrosomia at term in non-diabetic women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Several randomized controlled trials (RCTs) compared induction of labour with expectant management in non-diabetic women with suspected fetal macrosomia. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of labour induction for suspected fetal macrosomia. SEARCH STRATEGY: Literature search in electronic databases. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included all RCTs of suspected fetal macrosomia comparing labour induction with expectant management in term pregnancy. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: The primary outcome was the incidence of caesarean delivery. MAIN RESULTS: Four RCTs, including 1190 non-diabetic women with suspected fetal macrosomia at term, were analysed. Pooled data did not show a significant difference in incidence of caesarean delivery [relative risk (RR) 0.91, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.76-1.09], operative and spontaneous vaginal delivery, shoulder dystocia, intracranial haemorrhage, brachial plexus palsy, Apgar score <7 at 5 min, cord blood pH <7, and mean birth weight comparing women who received induction of labour with those who were managed expectantly. The induction group had a significantly lower time to delivery (mean difference -7.55 days, 95% CI -8.20 to -6.89), lower rate of birth weight ≥4000 g (RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.42-0.59) and ≥4500 g (RR 0.21, 95% CI 0.11-0.39), and lower incidence of fetal fractures (RR 0.17, 95% CI 0.03-0.79) compared with expectant management group. CONCLUSION: Induction of labour ≥38 weeks for suspected fetal macrosomia is associated with a significant decrease in fetal fractures, and therefore can be considered as a reasonable option. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: #Induction of labour for #macrosomia improves neonatal outcome.

Macrosomia.

Fetal macrosomia is defined as birth weight >4000 g and is associated with several maternal and fetal complications such as maternal birth canal trauma, shoulder dystocia, and perinatal asphyxia. Early identification of risk factors could allow preventive measures to be taken to avoid adverse perinatal outcomes. Prenatal diagnosis is based on two-dimensional ultrasound formulae, but accuracy is low, particularly at advanced gestation. Three-dimensional ultrasound could be an alternative to soft tissue monitoring, allowing better prediction of birth weight than two-dimensional ultrasound. In this article, we describe the definition, risk factors, diagnosis, prevention, ultrasound monitoring, prenatal care, and delivery in fetal macrosomia cases.

Practice Bulletin No. 173 Summary: Fetal Macrosomia.

Suspected fetal macrosomia is encountered commonly in obstetric practice. As birth weight increases, the likelihood of labor abnormalities, shoulder dystocia, birth trauma, and permanent injury to the neonate increases. The purpose of this document is to quantify those risks, address the accuracy and limitations of methods for estimating fetal weight, and suggest clinical management for a pregnancy with suspected fetal macrosomia.

Practice Bulletin No. 173: Fetal Macrosomia.

Suspected fetal macrosomia is encountered commonly in obstetric practice. As birth weight increases, the likelihood of labor abnormalities, shoulder dystocia, birth trauma, and permanent injury to the neonate increases. The purpose of this document is to quantify those risks, address the accuracy and limitations of methods for estimating fetal weight, and suggest clinical management for a pregnancy with suspected fetal macrosomia.

[Not Available]. / Ictère nucléaire dans un contexte de naissance à domicile.

This is the clinical history of a term baby born at home who presents a severe hyperbilirubinémia. The medical monitoring was assessed by a private midwife according to parental choice. On the third day of life, the newborn presented an icterus and was exposed to natural daylight in the familial greenhouse under the midwife recommandations. On that day, no laboratory test precised the bilirubin level. On the fifth day, a blood sampling revealed a very high blood bilirubinémia (31 mg/dl or 527 mmol/L), the baby is refered to our NICU and underwent an exchange transfusion. The radiological assessment report structural abnomalies in basal ganglia seen on both MRI and transfontannellar echography. These lesions are known to be responsible of cerebral palsy and hearing loos. The neurophysiologic investigations showed background abnormaly and depression. The extensive blood sampling excluded haemolysis. The clinical examination brought out neurologic impairement and weight loos in this exclusively breastfed baby. This clinical case point out the increasing risk of home Kernicterius as hospital stays diminish and homebirth enthousiasm rise up. The present clinical situation vouches for an adaptation of care giving to both mother and child at home in order to avoid this severe illness.

The Suspected Macrosomic Fetus at Term: A Clinical Dilemma.

Estimation of fetal weight is an important component of antenatal and intrapartum management of pregnant women. While many clinicians use ultrasound estimates of fetal weight to assess fetal growth, there are inherent challenges in both the diagnosis and management of suspected fetal macrosomia. Given the inaccuracy in estimating fetal weight, and the risks that accompany cesarean birth or induction of labor, the management of suspected fetal macrosomia requires open communication and shared decision making between the woman and her health care providers. This case study and literature review highlight the current management and recommendations for suspected fetal macrosomia.

[Delivery management for the prevention of shoulder dystocia in case of identified risk factors]. / Modalités de l'accouchement dans la prévention de la dystocie des épaules en cas de facteurs de risque identifiés.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of (i) computed tomographic (CT) pelvimetry for the choice of the mode of delivery, (ii) cesarean, (iii) induction of labor, and of (iv) various delivery managements on the risk of shoulder dystocia in case of fetal macrosomia, with or without maternal diabetes, and in women with previous history of shoulder dystocia. METHODS: The PubMed database, the Cochrane Library and the recommendations from the French and foreign obstetrical societies or colleges have been consulted. RESULTS: In case of clinically suspected macrosomia, a sonography should be performed to increase diagnostic performances and to assist in decision-making (Professional consensus). Because CT pelvimetry is associated with high false positive rates and increases cesarean deliveries, its use is not recommended to prevent shoulder dystocia in case of fetal macrosomia (Professional consensus). To avoid the neonatal complications of shoulder dystocia, mainly permanent brachial plexus palsy, cesarean delivery is recommended in case of estimated fetal weight (EFW) greater than 4500 g if associated with maternal diabetes (grade C), and greater than 5000 g in the absence of maternal diabetes (grade C). The published data do not provide definitive evidences to recommend systematic labor induction in case of impending fetal macrosomia (Professional consensus). In case of favourable cervix and gestational age greater than 39 weeks of gestation, labor induction should be promoted (Professional consensus). Prophylactic McRoberts maneuver is not recommended to prevent shoulder dystocia in case of fetal macrosomia (grade C). Because data are lacking, no recommendation is possible regarding the use of episiotomy. In case of fetal macrosomia and failure to progress in the second stage of labor, midpelvic and higher instrumental deliveries are not recommended and a cesarean delivery should be preferred (grade C), if the fetal head is at or lower than a +2 station, cesarean delivery is not recommended and an instrumental delivery should be preferred (grade C). Finally, cesarean delivery should be discussed when history of shoulder dystocia has been associated with severe neonatal or maternal complications (Professional consensus). CONCLUSION: To avoid shoulder dystocia and its complications, only two measures are proposed. Induction of labor is recommended in case of impending macrosomia if the cervix is favourable and gestational age greater than 39 weeks of gestation (Professional consensus). Cesarean delivery is recommended before labor in case of (i) EFW greater than 4500 g if associated with maternal diabetes (grade C), (ii) EFW greater than 5000 g in the absence of maternal diabetes (grade C), and finally (iii) during labor, in case of fetal macrosomia and failure to progress in the second stage, when the fetal head is above a +2 station (grade C). Finally, cesarean delivery should be discussed when history of shoulder dystocia has been associated with severe neonatal or maternal complications (Professional consensus).

Extreme macrosomia--obstetric outcomes and complications in birthweights >5000 g.

OBJECTIVE: Management of extremely large birthweight infants presents challenges during the period of labour and delivery. We sought to examine outcomes in infants with extreme macrosomia (birthweight > 5000 g), at an institution where the management of labour is standardised. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of prospectively gathered data on all infants with a birthweight >5000 g delivered at a tertiary level institution from 2008 to 2012. Details of labour characteristics and outcomes were examined; these were compared according to parity. RESULTS: During the study period, there were 46 128 deliveries at the hospital and 182 infants with a birthweight >5000 g, giving an incidence of 0.4%. The majority of women (133/182) were multiparous. Among nulliparas, 47% (23/49) had a vaginal delivery, while 53% (26/49) had a caesarean delivery. 86% (97/113) of multiparas had a vaginal delivery, and 14% (16/113) had a caesarean delivery. 43% (69/162) required induction of labour. This was more common in nulliparous compared with multiparous women (58% [29/49] vs 30% [40/133], P = 0.005, OR = 3.4, 95% CI = 1.7-6.6). A total of 30% (49/162) of women had their labour accelerated with oxytocin. There were higher rates of oxytocin use in nulliparas than in multiparas (55% [27/49] vs 16.5% [22/133], P < 0.0001, OR = 6.2, 95% CI = 3-12.8). Seventeen of the 120 infants delivered vaginally had a shoulder dystocia (14.2%), with three suffering an Erbs palsy, all of which had resolved before 6 months of age. One baby had a clavicular fracture. CONCLUSION: Extreme macrosomia affects 0.4% of pregnancies in contemporary practice. Multiparas have a low rate of caesarean section. Infants delivered vaginally are at increased risk of shoulder dystocia and associated complications.

Fetal macrosomia and shoulder dystocia in women with gestational diabetes: risks amenable to treatment?

Fetal macrosomia and maternal diabetes are independent risk factors for shoulder dystocia, an obstetrical emergency that may cause permanent neonatal injury. Randomized trials of glycemic control in pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes reveal decreased rates of macrosomia and shoulder dystocia among those treated. However, definitions of gestational diabetes vary and a specific glycemic threshold for clinically significant risk reduction remains to be delineated. This review discusses risks associated with gestational diabetes including macrosomia (birth weight above 4000-4500 g) and delivery-related morbidity, specifically, shoulder dystocia. Subsequently, we will review recent randomized trials assessing the impact of glycemic control on these delivery-related morbidities. Finally, we will examine a large observational study that found associations with delivery-related morbidity and hyperglycemia below current diabetic thresholds, observations which may suggest reexamination of current diagnosis guidelines for gestational diabetes.

Prevention, management, and outcomes of macrosomia: a systematic review of literature and meta-analysis.

Macrosomia represents an obstetric challenge, and when suspected, there is no general consensus as to whether expectant management, induction of labor, or elective cesarean delivery are the best option. This review article was aimed to discuss literature published in the last decade about the identification, management, and outcomes of macrosomia. The identification of macrosomia remains uncertain, mainly because of the high heterogeneity across studies because of different definitions of macrosomia, gestational age at time of assessment, and fetal weight formulas. With regard to management and outcomes of macrosomia, 12,212 macrosomic neonates can be pooled from 17 articles. Compared with neonates with normal birth weight, the odds ratio of emergency cesarean delivery increases from 1.92 (1.53-2.42) to 2.24 (1.42-3.56) and 5.20 (3.47-7.79) for macrosomia 4000 g or greater, 4500 g or greater, and 5000 g or greater, respectively. The odds ratios of shoulder dystocia are 7.18 (2.06-25.00), 7.33 (5.13-10.48), and 16.16 (7.62-34.26) for macrosomia 4000 g or greater, 4500 g or greater, and 5000 g or greater, respectively. Three birth traumas were reported after cesarean delivery. Perinatal mortality is similar between macrosomic and neonates with normal birth weight at each cutoff of macrosomia. Nonetheless, limitations of current literature, which are also discussed in this review, do not allow to drive definitive conclusion about the management of macrosomia.

[Management of post-term neonates]. / Prise en charge pédiatrique du nouveau-né post-terme.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the modalities of management of post-term neonates. METHODS: This study is based on PubMed search, Cochrane library and HAS recommendations. RESULTS: Medical team should be able to provide neonatal resuscitation in delivery room in case of meconium-stained fluid or perinatal asphyxia according to the international guidelines ILCOR 2010. The glycaemia of the post-term newborn with macrosomia should be evaluated. The initial clinical examination should search complications such as shoulder dystocia or clavicular fracture. Full blood count should be performed in symptomatic newborn post-term. Developmental assessment should be performed in post-term newborn in case of associated pathology. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of perinatal complications is increased in newborn post-term in delivery room and during hospitalization. Medical team should be able to manage these complications.

[Impact of HAPO study findings on future diagnostics and therapy of gestational diabetes]. / Bedeutung der HAPO-Ergebnisse für die zukünftige Diagnostik und Therapie des Gestationsdiabetes.

The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study is a trial on a high evidence level that included 25,000 women recruited in 15 centers all over the world who underwent a 75-gram oral glucose tolerance test (oGTT) at 24-32 weeks of gestation. Data remained blinded if the fasting plasma glucose level was below 105 mg/dl (5.8 mmol/l) and the 2-hour plasma glucose level was below 200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l). The aim of the study was to clarify whether maternal hyperglycemia less severe than that in diabetes mellitus is associated with increased risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes. The results indicate a continuous association of maternal glucose levels below those diagnostic of diabetes with an adverse outcome, with the strongest risk for increased birth weight and cord blood serum C peptide levels indicating fetal hyperinsulinism. Additionally an increased risk for maternal complications like preeclampsia was seen. Like in many biological processes, there were no obvious thresholds at which risks increased. An international expert committee proposed how to transfer the HAPO data into criteria for the oGTT in pregnancy for the future diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) which will be based on acute pregnancy problems in contrast to the recent Carpenter and Coustan criteria. The availability of uniform, internationally accepted and applied GDM criteria will provide more clinical and legal security for the caregivers which will be a big advantage also in Germany where a wide diversity of GDM criteria is used. Beside the threshold discussion, the HAPO data are of enormous relevance for Germany. The HAPO data will significantly influence the decision of the German Health Authorities whether to finally establish a general screening for GDM as obligatory part of prenatal care. A report from the German Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG) which was ordered from the German Health Authorities describes--mainly based on the HAPO Study--an indirect benefit of blood glucose screening for GDM for all pregnant women.

[Care of neonates born to diabetic mothers]. / Betreuung von Neugeborenen nach Schwangerschaften diabetischer Mütter.

This article aims to describe the pathophysiology of glucose metabolism in newborns of mothers with diabetes in pregnancy, the clinical signs of diabetic fetopathy and hypoglycaemia of the newborn, clinical practical procedures of post-partum blood glucose measurement and definition of hypoglycaemia, as well as prophylaxis and treatment of postpartal hypoglycaemia. In studies, newborns have been described with possibly severe mental retardation in the first years of life after post-partum recurrent hypoglycaemia with or without symptoms. Therefore, it is indicated to measure blood glucose levels regularly on the first day of life. Finally a flowchart for the measurement of glucose and therapy in newborns is presented.