"Phoenix in Flight": an unique fruit morphology ensures wind dispersal of seeds of the phoenix tree (Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight).

BACKGROUND: Many seed plants produce winged diaspores that use wind to disperse their seeds. The morphology of these diaspores is directly related to the seed dispersal potential. The majority of winged diaspores have flat wings and only seeds; however, some angiosperms, such as Firmiana produce winged fruit with a different morphology, whose seed dispersal mechanisms are not yet fully understood. In this study, we observed the fruit development of F. simplex and determined the morphological characteristics of mature fruit and their effects on the flight performance of the fruit. RESULTS: We found that the pericarp of F. simplex dehisced early and continued to unfold and expand during fruit development until ripening, finally formed a spoon-shaped wing with multiple alternate seeds on each edge. The wing caused mature fruit to spin stably during descent to provide a low terminal velocity, which was correlated with the wing loading and the distribution of seeds on the pericarp. When the curvature distribution of the pericarp surface substantially changed, the aerodynamic characteristics of fruit during descent altered, resulting in the inability of the fruit to spin. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the curved shape and alternate seed distribution are necessary for the winged diaspore of F. simplex to stabilize spinning during wind dispersal. These unique morphological characteristics are related to the early cracking of fruits during development, which may be an adaptation for the wind dispersal of seeds.

Microsporogénesis y micromorfología del polen de la planta Alcea rosea (Malvaceae) / Microsporogenesis and micromorphology of pollen grains of the plant Alcea rosea (Malvaceae)

Resumen Introducción: Los estudios sobre microsporogénesis, micromorfología y estructura de los granos de polen en Malvaceae son escasos. Objetivos: Describir el proceso de microsporogénesis y aspectos micromorfológicos de los granos de polen en A. rosea. Métodos: Se procesaron más de 30 andróforos de acuerdo con los protocolos estándar para incrustar y seccionar en parafina. Las secciones obtenidas se tiñeron con Azul de Safranina-Alcian, las anteras inmaduras y no fijadas se tiñeron con Azul de anilina. Se procesaron secciones de resina adicionales de los andróforos y se tiñeron con azul de toluidina. Se observaron secciones ultrafinas con microscopía electrónica de transmisión (MET). Para la observación con microscopía electrónica de barrido (MEB), el material se fijó y deshidrató en 2,2 dimetoxipropano, luego se secó hasta un punto crítico y se recubrieron con oro. Resultados: las anteras se diferencian de una masa celular en los extremos distales de los filamentos del estambre. La pared de la antera madura presenta una capa externa de células epidérmicas y una capa interna, el endotecio. Las células madre de microesporas se dividen por mitosis y luego experimentan meiosis para formar tétradas. El tapete es inicialmente celular y forma una sola capa de células y luego pierde integridad celular al invadir el lóculo de microsporangio, formando un periplasmodio. Durante la formación de la esporodermis, primero se deposita la exina y luego la intina. Para el momento de la liberación de los granos de polen, el tapete se ha degenerado por completo. Los granos de polen son pantoporados, apolares, con simetría radial, esferoidales, con espinas, báculas, gránulos y microgránulos. El téctum está perforado con fovéoleas dispuestas homogéneamente en toda la superficie y con polenkit. La exina es ancha (5-6 µm) y consta de una endexina gruesa de 3.5 a 4 µm y una ektexina fina (0.6-0.7 µm). La ultraestructura muestra columelas claramente definidas formando el infratéctum. Se aprecian tricomas nectaríferos unicelulares glandulares capitados (TG) cubriendo toda la superficie de los filamentos de los estambres. Conclusiones: La estructura y desarrollo de las anteras sigue los patrones conocidos de las angiospermas. La microsporogénesis simultánea y el depósito centrípeto de la esporodermis se han descrito previamente para Malvaceae.

Abstract Introduction: Studies on microsporogenesis, micromorphology and structure of pollen grains in Malvaceae are scarce. Objectives: To describe the process of microsporogenesis and micromorphological aspects of pollen grains in A. rosea. Methods: Androphores were processed according to standard protocols for sectioning in paraffin. The obtained sections were stained with Safranin-Alcian blue, Aniline blue was used for immature and unfixed anthers and for resin sections of the androphores, Toluidine blue. Ultrathin sections were observed with transmission electron microscopy. For observation with scanning electron microscopy the material was fixed and dehydrated in 2.2 dimethoxypropane, dried to a critical point and coated with gold. Results: Anthers differentiate from a cell mass at the distal ends of the stamen filaments. The wall of the mature anther presents an outer layer of epidermal cells and an inner layer, the endothecium. Microspore mother cells divide by mitosis and then undergo meiosis to form tetrads. The tapetum is initially cellular and forms a single layer of cells and then loses cellular integrity by invading the microsporangium locule, forming a periplasmodia, by the time the pollen grains are released it degenerated. During sporodermis formation, exine is first deposited and then intine. Pollen grains are pantoporate, apolar, with radial symmetry, spheroidal, with spines, bacula, granules and microgranules. Tectum is perforated with foveolae arranged homogeneously over the whole surface and pollenkit is present. Exine is broad and consists of a thick 3.5 to 4 µm endexine and a thin ektexine (0.6-0.7 µm). The ultrastructure shows columellae forming the infratectum. Capitate glandular unicellular nectariferous trichomes covers the whole surface of the stamen filaments. Conclusions: The structure and development of the anthers follows the known patterns for angiosperms. Simultaneous microsporogenesis and centripetal deposit of the sporodermis have been previously described for Malvaceae.

Stomatal size, ploidy and polyembryony in Eriotheca Stellate Trichome Species Complex (Bombacoideae - Malvaceae) in the Cerrados of Brazil.

Geographic parthenogenesis, range expansion of apomictic plants after climate changes, has been described for Northern Hemisphere gametophytic apomicts. But similar trends have been observed for sporophytic apomicts of Cerrado, the savannas in Brazil. Eriotheca pubescens is a common Cerrado tree, an agamic complex of either hexaploid/polyembryonic apomicts or tetraploid/monoembryonic sexual individuals. Some populations have been described as a new species, Eriotheca estevesiae, all included in the Eriotheca Stellate Trichome Species Complex (ESTSC). Since breeding systems and ploidy are clearly associated with polyembryony and stomatal size, we used these ancillary features to map the reproductive and ploidy level traits of E. pubescens and E. estevesiae. Leaves and seeds were collected from individuals of 19 populations. Seeds were evaluated for the presence of polyembryony and leaves for stomatal measurements. Eight populations were monoembryonic while another eight were polyembryonic and for other three, the embryonic pattern was not readily verified. E. pubescens polyembryonic and hexaploid populations formed a homogeneous group, but monoembryonic plants were more variable. E. estevesiae populations were monoembryonic with smaller stomata. In contrast, some E. pubescens monoembryonic populations further south presented larger stomata. Despite these outliers, possibly mixed populations, stomatal size and embryonic pattern differed from northern to southern populations. Embryonic pattern and stomatal size indicated that northernmost populations of Eriotheca STSC (E. estevesiae) are diploid and sexual. Southernmost populations, mostly polyembryonic and with large stomata, are hexaploid and apomictic. This is in agreement with geographic parthenogenesis and range expansion of apomictic lineages to southern habitats available after the last glacial maximum.

First Record of Mansonia dyari From Saint Croix, United States Virgin Islands.

The first report of Mansonia dyari on Saint Croix, United States Virgin Islands (USVI), is confirmed. Adult and larval specimens were collected in 2018 and 2019 through adult surveillance and larval collections. Specimens were identified by microscopic methods, and a representative specimen was confirmed by DNA sequencing (mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I). Morphological features are reviewed and compared with Mansonia flaveola, a species previously reported in the USVI. Notes are provided on the locations, collection methods, and mosquito associates found with Ma. dyari in the USVI.

Unexpected drought resistance strategies in seedlings of four Brachychiton species.

Functional traits associated with drought resistance can be useful for predicting tree responses to a drying climate. Yet drought resistance is likely achieved through a complex combination of constitutive traits (traits expressed even in benign environments) and plastic traits (traits expressed only in response to drought). Because few studies measure multiple traits for multiple species under both well-watered and drought conditions, we often struggle to identify suites of constitutive and plastic traits indicative of drought resistance strategies. Using a greenhouse experiment, we examined nine drought resistance traits (six morphological/allocation traits plus assimilation, stomatal conductance and water-use efficiency) in well-watered and water-stressed seedlings of four Brachychiton (Malvaceae Juss.) species with ranges spanning a strong aridity gradient in east-central Australia. In benign conditions, constitutive biomass allocation was consistent with expectations, with xeric species investing more heavily in roots and stem tissue and less in leaf tissue than mesic species (P = 0.004). Under drought conditions, xeric species decreased relative biomass allocation below-ground while mesic species increased relative below-ground allocation (treatment × species interaction P = 0.0015). Relative water content of the stems was slightly higher in xeric species (P = 0.055), and remained stable during drought while decreasing in mesic species (treatment × species P = 0.001). Specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf dry matter content (LDMC) did not fit with expectations under either benign or water-limited conditions. Moreover, stomatal conductance and carbon assimilation were unexpectedly highest and intrinsic water-use efficiency (WUEi) lowest in the xeric species in benign conditions. Only under drought did the xeric species manifest higher WUEi than the mesic species (treatment × species P < 0.0001). We found that even closely related species exhibited diverse combinations of drought resistance traits. Notably, traits commonly used as proxies for drought tolerance (e.g., SLA, LDMC, well-watered WUEi) performed more poorly than constitutive allocation traits. This study highlights the need to consider multiple traits and phenotypic plasticity when assessing species' drought resistance for forest management in the face of climate change.

Morpho-colorimetric characterisation of Malva alliance taxa by seed image analysis.

Seed morphometric and -colorimetric features describing shape, size and textural seed traits of 28 taxa belonging to the genera Lavatera L. and Malva L., were recorded by means of computer vision techniques. The data were statistically analysed to contribute to the taxonomical treatment of the Malva alliance and to assess some doubtful systematic positions. A clear differentiation between taxa traditionally attributed to Lavatera or Malva was highlighted. Furthermore, the identification system proposed here was able to discriminate among the Lavatera sections, confirming the taxonomic organization of this genus. The results obtained for Malva, both at the species level and among sections, supported this analytical tool as diagnostic for systematic purposes.

Revisiting the phylogeny of Bombacoideae (Malvaceae): Novel relationships, morphologically cohesive clades, and a new tribal classification based on multilocus phylogenetic analyses.

Bombacoideae (Malvaceae) is a clade of deciduous trees with a marked dominance in many forests, especially in the Neotropics. The historical lack of a well-resolved phylogenetic framework for Bombacoideae hinders studies in this ecologically important group. We reexamined phylogenetic relationships in this clade based on a matrix of 6465 nuclear (ETS, ITS) and plastid (matK, trnL-trnF, trnS-trnG) DNA characters. We used maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference to infer relationships among 108 species (∼70% of the total number of known species). We analyzed the evolution of selected morphological traits: trunk or branch prickles, calyx shape, endocarp type, seed shape, and seed number per fruit, using ML reconstructions of their ancestral states to identify possible synapomorphies for major clades. Novel phylogenetic relationships emerged from our analyses, including three major lineages marked by fruit or seed traits: the winged-seed clade (Bernoullia, Gyranthera, and Huberodendron), the spongy endocarp clade (Adansonia, Aguiaria, Catostemma, Cavanillesia, and Scleronema), and the Kapok clade (Bombax, Ceiba, Eriotheca, Neobuchia, Pachira, Pseudobombax, Rhodognaphalon, and Spirotheca). The Kapok clade, the most diverse lineage of the subfamily, includes sister relationships (i) between Pseudobombax and "Pochota fendleri" a historically incertae sedis taxon, and (ii) between the Paleotropical genera Bombax and Rhodognaphalon, implying just two bombacoid dispersals to the Old World, the other one involving Adansonia. This new phylogenetic framework offers new insights and a promising avenue for further evolutionary studies. In view of this information, we present a new tribal classification of the subfamily, accompanied by an identification key.

Leaf structural traits of tropical woody species resistant to cement dust.

Cement industries located nearby limestone outcrops in Brazil have contributed to the coating of cement dust over native plant species. However, little is known about the extent of the response of tropical woody plants to such environmental pollutant particularly during the first stages of plant development and establishment. This work focused on the investigation of possible alterations in leaf structural and ultrastructural traits of 5-month-old Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. (Malvaceae), 6-month-old Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão (Anacardiaceae), and 9-month-old Trichilia hirta L. (Meliaceae) challenged superficially with cement dust during new leaf development. Leaf surface of plants, the soil or both (leaf plus soil), were treated (or not) for 60 days, under controlled conditions, with cement dust at 2.5 or 5.0 mg cm(-2). After exposure, no significant structural changes were observed in plant leaves. Also, no plant death was recorded by the end of the experiment. There was also some evidence of localized leaf necrosis in G. ulmifolia and T. hirta, leaf curling in M. urundeuva and T. hirta, and bulges formation on epidermal surface of T. hirta, after cement dust contact with plant shoots. All species studied exhibited stomata obliteration while T. hirta, in particular, presented early leaf abscission, changes in cellular relief, and organization and content of midrib cells. No significant ultrastructural alterations were detected under the experimental conditions studied. Indeed, mesophyll cells presented plastids with intact membrane systems. The high plant survival rates, together with mild morphoanatomic traits alterations in leaves, indicate that G. ulmifolia is more resistant to cement dust pollutant, followed by M. urundeuva and T. hirta. Thus, the three plant species are promising for being used to revegetate areas impacted by cement industries activities.

[Identification characters of leaf morphological and venation pattern of Abutilon indicum with its confused herb A. theophrasti].

OBJECTIVE: To study the identification characters of Abutilon indicum and its confused herb A. theophrasti and establish an identification method. METHOD: LMVP (leaf morphological-venation pattern for identification Chinese herbs), and QAERM (quantitatively analyze and evaluate reliability for the method of identification Chinese herbs) were applied for the study. RESULT: The main differences of the leaf of Abutilon indicum: leaf margin cilia short and not clear (75-200 microm), petiole top with long straight hairs (up to 1.0-1.2 cm), when the tertiary veins and intersecondary veins issue from the lower part of midrib, their angles of divergence usually were wide acute (65 degrees-80 degrees) and a few was about right angle (80 degrees-100 degrees). The main differences of the leaf of A. theophrasti: leaf margin cilia long and clear (200-500 microm), petiole top with short straight hairs (most 0.1-0.5 mm), when the tertiary veins and intersecondary veins issue from the lower part of midrib, their angles of divergence usually were about right angle (80 degrees-100 degrees) and a few was wide acute (65 degrees-80 degrees). With the mentioned three groups of key differences, the both plants could be successfully identified from each other. The accuracy of identification results (AC) was from 97.5% to 99.6%, the repeatability of identification results: agreement rate for observation (ARO) was 97.1% and Kappa value was 0.94. CONCLUSION: The established method is simple, rapid, economic and reliable.

Evidence for leaf fold to remedy the deficiency of physiological photoprotection for photosystem II.

An interesting phenomenon is that some light-demanding plants fold their leaves when exposed to high light. Since high light could induce selective photodamage to photosystem II (PSII), we suggest that the leaves fold themselves to diminish the absorption of light energy and remedy the deficiency of physiological photoprotection for PSII. To test this hypothesis, we determined light responses of non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and cyclic electron flow (CEF) and the effect of high light on PSII activity in Microcos paniculata (non-foldable species) and Bauhinia tenuiflora (foldable species). Under high light B. tenuiflora showed much lower NPQ and CEF than M. paniculata. Meanwhile, the excess light energy that cannot be harmlessly dissipated in B. tenuiflora was more compared with that in M. paniculata. After exposure to a high light of 1,900 µmol photons m(-2) s(-1) for 2 h, the maximum quantum yield of PSII, as estimated by variable to maximal fluorescence (F (v) /F (m)) decreased from 0.7 to 0.52 in the foldable species B. tenuiflora but was stable at 0.7 in the nonfoldable species M. paniculata. These results indicate that the foldable species B. tenuiflora has more sensitivity of PSII to high light stress than the nonfoldable species M. paniculata, partly as a result of less CEF and NPQ in B. tenuiflora. Our results suggest that sun leaves fold themselves under high light to remedy the deficiency of physiological photoprotection for PSII.

Interspecific and sexual shape variation in the filariasis vectors Mansonia dives and Ma. bonneae.

In the South of Thailand, six Mansonia species are recorded as filariasis vectors, among which Ma. bonneae and Ma. dives. These two species are distributed in the same breeding place, mainly the swamp forest, but appear to be of problematic identification using traditional morphological characters. Because of the risk of wrong identification during epidemiological or biological studies, complementary techniques are needed to distinguish the two species. We used on the same field collected specimens both genetic (DNA barcoding) and phenetic (geometric morphometrics) techniques. Both methods converged to identify two separate entities in accordance with morphological differences and geographic origins. Shape divergence between species was more pronounced in males than in females. Notably, the amount of within species sexual shape dimorphism was much larger than shape divergence as recorded between species. In spite of these two species of Mansonia being evolutionary very close, simple DNA barcoding was resolutive. Geometric morphometrics, because it is a fast and low-cost procedure, appeared as an interesting complement to modern diagnostic techniques applied in medical entomology. It also was able to provide information relevant to the ecology of the two species.

Root system architecture of Kosteletzkya pentacarpos (Malvaceae) and belowground environmental influences on root and aerial growth dynamics.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Root growth and architecture of Kosteletzkya pentacarpos and its response to nutrients and soil texture were studied to facilitate domestication of this plant as a biofuel crop (seeds for oil, stems for ethanol). Because it is salt tolerant, it does not compete with food crops for land. METHODS: Four soil treatments in the bottom chambers of two-chambered growing units (three nutrient levels in sandy loam and saline, dredged material) were used to test substrate influences on root structure and aerial growth in a greenhouse study. Simultaneously, underground reserves were determined by collecting aerial biomass of dark-grown plants. Root cores (15 × 50 cm) were taken to determine root architecture of 2-year-old field-grown plants. KEY RESULTS: High nutrient availability increased the coarse root biomass (≥2 mm diameter) and increased capsule production. Plants grown in dredged sediment had no substantial growth differences from the controls. Underground reserves were significant. Field cores demonstrated that roots extended more than 50 cm with most of the coarse roots in the upper 20 cm and the coarse to fine root ratio decreasing with depth. Fine root surface area, measured using image-analysis software, was substantially greater than many other crops, as was root mass density. CONCLUSIONS: Root architecture of K. pentacarpos and its responses to various nutrient levels and soil types demonstrate that it is a promising species for further development as a crop on coastal saline land including dredged material sites. Its perennial taproot system stores carbon and will perform buffer functions between upland and wetlands as sea level rises.

Heliocarpus popayanensis Kunth (Malvacea) tolera a hipoxia dosubstrato? / Does Heliocarpus popayanensis Kunth (Malvaceae) tolerate substract’s hypoxy?

(Heliocarpus popayanensis Kunth (Malvaceae) tolera a hipoxia do substrato?) Aespécie Heliocarpus popayanensis é muito utilizada em recomposição florística de áreasdegradadas, cujo solo pode apresentar hipoxia. Considerando esses aspectos, este trabalhovisou avaliar resposta desta espécie ao alagamento. Indivíduos com 70 dias foramsubmetidos a substrato drenado(D) e alagado (A) por 30 e 60 dias e a alagado, 30 dias, e adrenado mais 30 dias (A/D). Foram determinados os comprimentos da raiz principal e docaule, a área foliar e o número de folhas, a biomassa e a taxa de crescimento relativo (TCR)de raízes, caules e folhas e o conteúdo nutricional das folhas. Até 60 dias de alagamentohouve redução percentual média na biomassa (38%), na TCR (77%) e área foliar (24%),além de redução no diâmetro do caule e da raiz (70%) e na lignificação de célulasfloemáticas. Nenhuma alteração anatômica ocorreu nas folhas, mas houve redução naconcentração dos nutrientes N, P, K, Fe, Cu e B. Portanto, em condições experimentais,Heliocarpus popayanensis sobrevive a períodos de alagamento, provavelmente pelas alteraçõesmorfoanatômicas. A raridade desta espécie em área alagável deve estar relacionada comoutras etapas do ciclo de vida, como germinação das sementes ou estabelecimento deplântulas e juvenis em competição com outras espécies.

The species Heliocarpus popayanensis is used on floristic recomposition of degradedareas, wich’s soil might present hypoxy. Considering these aspects, this studies evaluatesthis species answers to flooding. Young plants were submitted to drained and floodedsubstract for 30 and 60 days, then flooded for 30 days and then drained for more 30 days.Main root and stem length, area and number of leaves, biomass and relative growth rate ofroots, stems and leaves and the nutritional content of leaves were determined. Until 60 daysof flooding there was a percentual reduction in biomass (38%), in RGR (77%) and in thearea of leaves, including reduction in root and stem’s diameter (70%), and in thelignification of floematic cells. There was no anatomic alteration in leaves, but there wasreduction of nutrients concentration (N, P, K, Fe, Cu, B). Therefore, young plants of thespecies Heliocarpus popayanensis survive to the flooding period considered above, probablydue to anatomical and morphologic alterations. The rarity of this species in flooded area isprobably related to other stages of the life cycle, such as seeds germination or competitionwith other species in the environment.

Patterns of nectar production and composition, and morphology of floral nectaries in Helicteres guazumifolia and Helicteres baruensis (Sterculiaceae): two sympatric species from the Costa Rican tropical dry forest / Patrones de producción y composición de néctar y morfología de nectarios florales en Helicteres guazumifolia y Helicteres baruensis (Sterculiaceae): dos especies simpátricas del bosque seco tropical costarricense

Helicteres guazumifolia Kunth and Helicteres baruensis Jacq. (Sterculiaceae) are two sympatric species of shrubs common along the North Western tropical dry forest of Costa Rica. i recorded their nectar production within a 24 hour cycle. i also describe the morphology of extrafloral nectaries with scanning electron microscopy. in H. guazumifolia secretion was restricted to the first day of flower life span, shortly after anthesis (0600 hr - 1800 hr). Flowers secreted on average 15.63 ±8.45 µl (N=409). Nectar is composed of three main sugars: sucrose, fructose and glucose (mainly sucrose). A total of 17 free amino acids were identified: mainly proline, arginine, threonine and tyrosine, with a concentration above 70 Ng/µl. values were different for H. baruensis. Nectar secretion was confined to the second day after anthesis, starting at 1600 hr and ending at 0600 hr the following day. Flowers secreted on average 77.03 ±64.99 µl (N=163) of nectar. Nectar is also composed of three main sugars; however, it showed a tendency to be hexose-rich, having more fructose and glucose than sucrose. There were also 17 free amino acids, mainly proline, alanine, tyrosine, arginine and threonine. Patterns of nectar production are different between the two species for timing, and for amount and composition of nectar secretion. Rev. Biol. Trop. 57 (Suppl. 1): 161-177. Epub 2009 November 30.

Helicteres guazumifolia Kunth y Helicteres baruensis Jacq. (Sterculiaceae) son dos especies simpátricas de arbustos comunes en el bosque tropical seco de la zona noroeste de Costa Rica. Registré los patrones de producción de néctar de las dos especies según la hora del día o de la noche cuando hubo secreción de néctar. En H. guazumifolia se limitó al primer día del período de vida floral, desde el inicio de la antesis a las 0600 hr hasta las 1800 hr. Las flores secretaron en promedio 15.63 ±8.45 µl (N=409) de néctar. El néctar está compuesto por tres azúcares principales: sacarosa, fructuosa y glucosa, y es rico en sacarosa. Se identificó un total de 17 aminoácidos diferentes en el néctar floral. Prolina, arginina, treonina y tirosina fueron los aminoácidos más abundantes con una concentración mayor a 70 Ng/µl. En contraste, las flores de su pariente H. baruensis, secretaron néctar en el segundo día de vida de la flor, después de la antesis; se inició a las 1600 hr y cesó a las 0600 hr del día siguiente. Las flores secretaron en promedio 77.03 ±64.99 µl (N=163) de néctar. El néctar también está compuesto por tres azúcares principales; no obstante, tiende a ser rico en hexosas, con más fructuosa y glucosa que sacarosa. También contiene 17 aminoácidos libres, siendo los más concentrados prolina, alanina, tirosina, arginina y treonina. Se observan claramente patrones diferentes de producción de néctar entre las dos especies según la hora, la cantidad y la composición del néctar. También describí la morfología de los nectarios florales usando fotomicrografías tomadas con microscopio electrónico.

Five molecular markers reveal extensive morphological homoplasy and reticulate evolution in the Malva alliance (Malvaceae).

The Malva alliance is a well-defined group with extensive morphological homoplasy. As a result, the relationships among the taxa as well as the evolution of morphological traits have remained elusive and the traditional classifications are highly artificial. Using five molecular markers (nuclear ITS, plastid matK plus trnK, ndhF, trnL-trnF, psbA-trnH), we arrived at a phylogenetic hypothesis of this group, the genera Alcea, Althaea and Malvalthaea being studied here for the first time with molecular data. Althaea and, in particular, Lavatera and Malva are highly polyphyletic as currently circumscribed, because their diagnostic characters, the number and degree of fusion of the epicalyx bracts, evolve in a highly homoplasious manner. In contrast, fruit morphology largely agrees with the molecularly delimited groups. Hybrid origins confirmed for the genus Malvalthaea and for Lavatera mauritanica and hybridization in the group of ruderal small-flowered mallows underline the importance of reticulate evolution in shaping the history of this group and complicating the interpretation of morphological evolution.

Pollen, tapetum and orbicule development in Modiolastrum malvifolium (Malvaceae).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Although orbicular functions are still a matter of debate, they are considered by most authors to be exclusively formed by a secretory tapetum. However, the presence of orbicules on a peritapetal membrane associated with a plasmodial tapetum has been described for Abutilon pictum (Malvaceae) in a previous study. Thus, studies on other species of Malvaceae are necessary to corroborate the presence of such bodies in other members of the family. Pollen and microsporangium development of Modiolastrum malvifolium has been studied in this work. METHODS: Anthers at different stages of development were processed for transmission electron microscopy and light microscopy. Membranes and pollen walls resistant to acetolysis were isolated from whole anthers. KEY RESULTS: Microspore tetrads have a tetrahedral arrangement. Pollen grains are shed at the bicellular stage. The tapetum is invasive, non-syncytial and a peritapetal membrane with orbicules is formed. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of the presence of orbicules on a peritapetal membrane in a species with a tapetum of an invasive, non-syncytial type. Taking into consideration all the information on the subject, it can be concluded that the presence of orbicules is not a stable criterion to differentiate between a secretory or plasmodial, or intermediate invasive, non-syncytial tapetum.

Secondary stem anatomy and uses of four drought-deciduous species of a tropical dry forest in México

Wood and bark anatomy and histochemistry of Acacia bilimekii Humb. & Bonpl., Acacia cochliacantha Mcbride., Conzatia multiflora (Rob) Stand. and Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.are described from stem samples collected in a tropical dry forest (Morelos,Mexico). Enzyme activities were tested in tangential, radial and transverse cuts of fresh material. Histochemistry and stem anatomy were studied on similar cuts previously softened in a solution of water-glicerol-PEG. Our results show that the anatomical patterns of bark and wood, as well as the histochemical patterns and specific gravity, are influenced by water accessibility and climate; these patterns could guarantee mechanical and anti-infection strategies to support extreme conditions. Enzyme cytochemistry reveals biochemical activities probably related to lipid utilization routes for the lignification processes and for synthesis of extractives; these results suggest that the formation and maturation of woody tissue is very active at the beginning of the rainy season. These species are widely used by the local population. Traditional uses include firewood, dead and live fences, fodder, construction, supporting stakes, handcrafts, farming tools, extraction of tanning products, and medicine. There is no relationship between use and abundance. Alternative uses are proposed according to a density index

Se estudió la anatomía e histoquímica del tallo secundario de Acacia bilimekii, Acacia cochliacantha, Conzatia multiflora y Guazuma ulmifolia. Las muestras de tallo se colectaron en una selva baja caducifolia del estado de Morelos, México. La actividad enzimática se estudió en cortes frescos de caras tangenciales, radiales y transversales. La anatomía e histoquímica se hizo en cortes similares de muestras previamente ablandadas con una mezcla de agua-glicerol-PEG. Los resultados muestran que el patrón anatómico de la corteza y madera, así como las características histoquímicas no enzimáticas están relacionados con el acceso al agua y el clima; estos patrones garantizan que las estrategias mecánicas de resistencia al deterioro les permitan sobrevivir a condiciones extremas. Los resultados de la histoquímica y la citoquímica enzimática sugieren que la lignificación y la síntesis de extractivos a partir de los lípidos de reserva se encuentra activa desde el principio de la estación de lluvias. Se sugieren usos potenciales para las especies estudiads de acuerdo con las densidades relativas

Secondary stem anatomy and uses of four drought-deciduous species of a tropical dry forest in México.

Wood and bark anatomy and histochemistry of Acacia bilimekii Humb. & Bonpl., Acacia cochliacantha Mcbride, Conzatia nultiflora (Rob) Stand. and Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. are described from stem samples collected in a tropical dry forest (Morelos, Mexico). Enzyme activities were tested in tangential, radial and transverse cuts of fresh material. Histochemistry and stem anatomy were studied on similar cuts previously softened in a solution of water-glicerol-PEG. Our results show that the anatomical patterns of bark and wood, as well as the histochemical patterns and specific gravity, are influenced by water accessibility and climate; these patterns could guarantee mechanical and anti-infection strategies to support extreme conditions. Enzyme cytochemistry reveals biochemical activities probably related to lipid utilization routes for the lignification processes and for synthesis of extractives; these results suggest that the formation and maturation of woody tissue is very active at the beginning of the rainy season. These species are widely used by the local population. Traditional uses include firewood, dead and live fences, fodder, construction, supporting stakes, handcrafts, farming tools, extraction of tanning products, and medicine. There is no relationship between use and abundance. Alternative uses are proposed according to a density index.

[Study on the stunted culture of trees of Scaphium lychnophorum].

Taking these cultural practices, grafting by the ingraftment of side branch on the place of flowering with the dwarf stock, tip pruning on time to make branches growing and rational pruning etc can make the trees of Scaphium lychnbophorum dwafing effectively. The stunted trees are only high 3-5 m and their branches are only high about 1 m from the ground. Some of them first flower until five years after they are cultivated.