Al-Zahrawi (936-1013 AD): On the Surgical Treatment of Neurological Disorders by the Father of Operative Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Medical knowledge during the medieval ages flourished under the influence of great scholars of the Islamic Golden age such as Ibn Sina (Latinized as Avicenna), Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes), and Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahrawi, known as Albucasis. Much has been written on al-Zahrawi's innovation in various disciplines of medicine and surgery. In this article, we focus for on the contributions of al-Zahrawi toward the treatment of neurological disorders in the surgical chapters of his medical encyclopedia, Kitab al-Tasrif (The Method of Medicine). METHODS: Excerpts from a modern copy of volume 30 of al-Zahrawi's Kitab al-Tasrif were reviewed and translated by the primary author from Arabic to English, to further provide specific details regarding his neurosurgical knowledge. In addition, a literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar to review prior reports on al-Zahrawi's neurosurgical instructions. RESULTS: In addition to what is described in the literature of al-Zahrawi's teachings in cranial and spine surgery, we provide insight into his diagnosis and management of cranial and spinal trauma, the devices he used, and prognostication of various traumatic injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Al-Zahrawi was a renowned physician during the Islamic Golden age who made significant contributions to the diagnosis and treatment of neurological conditions, particularly cranial and spinal cord injuries. He developed innovative surgical techniques for trephination and spinal traction, which are still used in modern neurosurgery. His insights make him worthy of recognition as an important figure in the history of neurological surgery.

Personal Experiences of Chief Physician Emir çelebi on Kidney and Bladder Diseases: A Brief Review in Anmudhaj al-Tibb.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study is to review the kidney and bladder disease sections in Emir çelebi's book called Anmudhaj al-Tibb by presenting and discussing his own experiences with these issues. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A copy of Anmudhaj al-Tibb registered in Istanbul Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, Mihrisah Sultan Collection, no. 342/1, and a printed copy of al-Mujaz fi al-Tibb in Arabic, as well as a copy of the Turkish translation of this work by Sururi registered in Ankara National Library, A1437, were examined. We examined the findings in light of the literature. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: We discovered that the sections on kidney and bladder diseases in Emir çelebi's Anmudhaj al-Tibb are actually Turkish translations of relevant sections of Ibn al-Nafis's al-Mujaz fi al-Tibb. In some of these chapters, Emir çelebi has added his own observations and experiences, whereas, in others, he has included quotations from physicians such as Ibn Masawayh and Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi. One of the most intriguing findings was the drug Yad-Allah, which Emir çelebi claimed was very effective in reducing the kidney stone of the Grand Admiral of the Ottoman Navy Receb Pasha. According to Emir çelebi, Galen and Aflinus [?] both praised this medicine in their own works. However, it has been discovered that Yad-Allah, as described in the literature, is a drug defined by Philagrius.

Avicenna's pharmacopeia for the treatment of animal bites.

Envenomation is a common medical problem. The Canon of Medicine written by Avicenna is one of the reliable sources of Persian medicine. The present study aims to identify Avicenna's clinical pharmacology approach and the pharmacopeia used for the treatment of animal envenomations and also to evaluate the related data in light of the current medicine. The Canon of Medicine was searched using related Arabic keywords for the contents about the treatment of animal bites. A literature search was conducted in scientific databases including PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science to obtain relevant data. Avicenna recommended one hundred and eleven medicinal plants for the treatment of bites of vertebrate and invertebrate venomous animals including snakes, scorpions, spiders, wasps, and centipedes. He mentioned different methods of administrating these drugs including oral drugs, lotions, sprayed drugs, slow-dissolving tablets in the mouth, and enemas. Moreover, he paid special attention to pain relief in addition to specific treatments for animal bites. In the Canon of Medicine, Avicenna recommended several medicinal plants alongside analgesics for the management and treatment of animal envenomations. The current research elucidates the clinical pharmacology and pharmacopeia of Avicenna for the treatment of animal envenomations. Further research is encouraged to evaluate the efficacy of these therapeutic agents for the treatment of animal bites.

The Science of Sleep in Medieval Arabic Medicine: Part 2: Sleep Theory and Practice After Ibn Sina.

In this second article on medieval Arabic medical discussions on sleep, I show that Ibn Sina's pneumatic paradigm of sleep opened up new research pathways for subsequent physicians in Islamic societies. Opposing those who posit a decline in scientific activity post-1200 in these societies, I show that Ibn al-Nafis (d. 1288), Ibn al-Quff (d. 1286), and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1311), among others, raised and answered new questions to highlight the (possible) active role played by the brain in sleep onset and the strengthening of certain brain activities during sleep. They also continued to investigate the (three) stages of sleep and paid attention to different breathing patterns, in addition to pulse, during each stage. Finally, they also applied the pneumatic paradigm in new ways to understand the broader impact of certain medical conditions on sleep.

The Science of Sleep in Medieval Arabic Medicine: Part 1: Ibn Sina's Pneumatic Paradigm.

Modern sleep specialists are taught that, before the twentieth century, sleep was universally classified as a passive phenomenon with minimal to no brain activity. However, these assertions are made on the basis of particular readings and reconstructions of the history of sleep, using Western European medical works and ignoring works composed in other parts of the world. In this first of two articles on Arabic medical discussions on sleep, I shall show that sleep was not understood to be a purely passive phenomenon, at least from the time of Ibn Sina (lat. Avicenna, d. 1037) onward. Building on the earlier Greek medical tradition, Ibn Sina provided a new pneumatic understanding of sleep that allowed him to explain previously recorded phenomena associated with sleep, while providing a way to capture how certain parts of the brain (and body) can even increase their activities during sleep.

Death of a medical colossus: The course, cause and fatal outcome of Avicenna's colic.

Abu-'Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdallah ibn-Sina (known in the West as Avicenna) is revered in much of Asia as one of history's greatest physicians. And yet, few westerners know of him, his iconic Canon of Medicine or the role he played in preserving ancient Greek medical knowledge following the sack of Rome. We briefly review Avicenna's impressive legacy and provide what to our knowledge is the first critical examination of the illness responsible for his death at age 58 years.

Rhazes' (865-925 CE) contribution to surgery in Liber Almansoris.

BACKGROUND: Surgery has deep historical roots. Rhazes (865-925 CE), a Persian physician, made a significant contribution to the development of medical sciences in the medieval era. Liber Almansoris is one of his significant works on medicine. This book is a medical textbook for medical students. It covers every aspect of the medical sciences. This article discusses Rhazes' contribution to surgery, based on Liber Almansoris. METHOD: This study examines Rhazes' contribution to surgery, based on his book, Liber Almansoris. RESULTS: Rhazes's Liber Almansoris contains a chapter (seventh chapter) on orthopedics, which includes surgical approaches. This chapter also describes surgical procedures for traumas and skull fractures. In other chapters, he also recommends surgical options for treating certain complications when discussing different treatment methods. DISCUSSION: Although Rhazes mentioned surgical procedures as a medical treatment method, he did not include a separate chapter on surgery. This strategy can be found in his other medical works, such as Liber Continens or Al-Hawi. It appears that Rhazes adheres to the Galenic (Greek) perspective on surgery. In this context, surgery is not an independent major but a method that a physician can employ as needed. It differs from an alternative approach in that era that adheres to ancient Persian perspectives, which identified surgery as a major like other medical sciences disciplines.

Tayadhuq (Theodocus/Théodoros) and his role in the formation of Islamic medicine.

Tayadhuq, also known as Theodocus/Théodoros (d. early 8th century AD), was educated in the Gondes̲h̲apur School and served the Sassanid kings. During this period, he contacted the Umayyad court and became the physician of Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (d. 715 AD), the general governor of the Eastern regions of the caliphate. In addition to his knowledge on the Sassanid scientific tradition, Tayadhuq had a significant role in transferring this tradition to the Islamic world. His ideas were later followed by polymath physicians such as Rhazes (Abu Bakr al-Razi, d. 925 AD), Avicenna (Ibn Sina, d. 1037 AD), and others who lived after him. His medical works were of great importance to the development of early Islamic medicine. Therefore, this study will attempt to illuminate this forgotten scholar's medical knowledge, the works he produced, and finally illustrate his influences on later Muslim physicians.

Avicenna and clinical experiences in Canon of Medicine.

Avicenna used his medical knowledge and experience of scientists from different nations to create a new style in medicine. For this reason, his textbook, Canon of Medicine, has been considered a medical reference in all universities worldwide for centuries. In this article, some valuable and interesting diagnostic and therapeutic clinical experiences mentioned in the Canon of Medicine are described in five sections. This research was conducted to review Avicenna's specific clinical observations and interventions in PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases using the keywords "Avicenna" and "Canon of Medicine". In this article, we presented several examples of diagnostic and therapeutic clinical experiences mentioned in the Canon of Medicine in 5 areas, including semiology, therapeutic strategy, urology, neurology, obstetrics, and gynecology. Canon of Medicine, as a complete medical series containing the medical experiences from different nations and Iranian medical scientists, has influenced the world's medical knowledge for several centuries. Some of Avicenna's clinical and experimental views can be useful from both a historical point of view and new research.

Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) on Head Wounds in Kitab al-Taysir (Liber Teisir).

OBJECTIVE: To present and evaluate the section concerning head wounds in Kitab al-Taysir (Liber Teisir) by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar). METHODS: In this study, 4 different versions of Avenzoar's work were analyzed. The first 2 versions are in Arabic and titled Kitab al-Taysir fi al-Mudawat wa al-Tadbir; one was edited by Michel Khouri and printed in Damascus in 1983, and the other was edited by Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah al-Rudani and printed in Rabat in 1991. The third and fourth versions are in Latin; one was translated by Paravicius, edited by Hieronymus Surianus, and printed in Venice in 1530, and the other was a manuscript in Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé, MS 5119 in Paris and was translated by John of Capua. RESULTS: The titles of the sections are "Wounds due to iron objects" and "Wounds due to stones" in Arabic and "On head injuries from external factors such as blow" and "On head wounds from iron or stone or wood" in Latin. The chapter written by Avenzoar on head wounds is divided into 2 parts. First, he explained the treatment, and subsequently he described his views and related experiences. CONCLUSIONS: The information provided by Avenzoar on head injuries technically reflects the medical and surgical comprehension of his era. In the section that is the focus of this study, he first provided technical information related to head injuries and then offered his opinions on the controversial and problematic issues in treatment such as phlebotomy. This study revealed that Avenzoar approached the subject differently than his predecessors.

Mansur ibn Ilyas Shirazi (1380-1422 AD), a pioneer of neuroanatomy.

History of anatomy is as long as the history of medicine itself. Development of this basic science was not possible without the dedicative effort of those physicians and scholars who were committed to discover the mysteries of human anatomy. In this regard, Iranian scholars played an important role in the development of the anatomical sciences despite the religious limitations in their societies. Mansur ibn Ilyas Shirazi is an Iranian physician of fourteenth century who wrote the first color illustrated anatomical book, Mansur's Anatomy. A considerable portion of the book has been dedicated to the central and peripheral nervous system so that he could be considered as one of the pioneers of neuroanatomy.

Biographical review of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) - A physician of 12th CE.

In the Islamic Golden Age, medicine flourished by the practice of Persian, Arab and Greek physicians (9th to 13th century AD). Ibn rushd (1126-1198 AD) was renowned physician in that period, influenced the progress of medicine by his writings. He was the stalwart of medical sciences and owner of many writings in various fields of science. One of his writings in medicine was "Al- Kulliyat fi Al-Tibb" (Colliget or "Generalities on Medicine"). Many of his writings were studied in every part of globe. Now a day it is need of hour to generalize his knowledge for further researches. In this paper it is trying to compile his historical aspect of life as well as writings.

PARADISE OF WISDOM: INDIAN MEDICAL CONCEPTS IN A PERSIAN ISLAMIC MEDICAL TEXT

Antique traditional medical theories created by old medical doctrines and their historical background have been significantly mentioned today by medical historian scholars. Persia and India had many interactions in different perspectives, such as knowledge, religion, and traditions. One of the most considerable aspects of the relationship between Indians and Persians is the transmission of basic theories of their medical doctrines. As it is reported in many historical texts from the first ages of the Islamic era in Iran, a large number of medical texts were gathered from contiguous civilizations in Iran by order of the Abbasid Caliph. They were then translated into Arabic, Syriac, and Persian. So, Persian physicians and authors used them that way. One of the earlier physicians who reflected the viewpoints of Indian medicine in his famous medical textbook entitled "Paradise of Wisdom" is Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari (3rd century A.H./9th century A.D.). Persian physicians in the Islamic golden age (8th to 16th A.D.) played an astonishing role in the development of medical knowledge in several aspects through physician innovations and expression and evaluation of different ideas about medicine. In this regard, some of the Indian medical theories were expressed by a famous Persian physician, Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari was a Persian physician of the 3rd century A.H./9th century A.D. He wrote the book Firdous al-Hikmah (or Paradise of Wisdom), the first encyclopedia of Islamic medicine in Iran. The book introduces and describes the basics and therapeutic procedures adopted in Indian medicine, along with procedures of Persian and Greek medical doctrines, by discussing the basic medical theories in these three doctrines. In this paper, we discuss the reflection of traditional Indian medicine as described in Firdous al-Hikmah and its influence on later medical texts.

Anatomy of Being, Metaphysics of Death: The Case of Avicenna's Logical Dissection.

Elucidating a metaphysics of medicine is vital for framing a coherent medical ethics. In this paper, I examine the historical case of Avicenna, the eleventh century physician-philosopher. Avicenna radicalizes the dissective power of reason using a logicized Aristotelian metaphysics to clarify concepts at the metaphysical level, which I call his anatomy of being. One of the practical consequences of Avicenna's metaphysics is a dehumanizing eschatology of death. I outline the main elements of Avicenna's thought that constitute his anatomy of being. Through an examination of his logic, metaphysics, and psychology, I show how Avicenna develops a dissective logic. I conclude that one's epistemology, as a method of knowing, entails a metaphysics, and, in turn, results in an ethical stance to the object of knowledge. For Avicenna, mental dissective logic applied to humans results in dehumanization, thereby destroying the humanistic impulse of medicine.

The Avicenna lunar crater.

Fifty years ago, in 1970, a lunar crater was named in honor of Avicenna, one of the most influential physicians of the Medieval period. His encyclopedic work, The Canon of Medicine, attempted to codify all medical knowledge including dermatology. This contribution provides a brief overview of Avicenna, his contributions to medicine and dermatology, and the lunar crater named after him.

Legacy of Syriac-Aramaic Scholars in Transmitting Neurosurgical Knowledge Between Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The link between ancient Greek medicine and the Arabic translation period in the 9th century cannot be understood without studying the contributions of Syriac scholars. With their mastery of Greek and the related Semitic languages of Syriac and Arabic, they initiated a scientific translation process with methods that prevail to this day. In this paper, we reviewed Hunayn Ibn Isshaq's Ten Treatises on the Eye to elucidate the original contributions of the Syriac physicians to the field of neurologic surgery. We analyzed the oldest known diagram of orbital anatomy along with Hunayn's genuine ideas on the optic nerve anatomy and pathology, optic chiasm, afferent pupillary reflex, and papilledema and venous congestion. We also reviewed the neurosurgical elements found in the Syriac Book of Medicines including the thought process in localizing neurologic deficits based on clinical experience and anatomic dissections and the earliest recorded description of brachial plexus pathology.

A Study on Head Wounds in Kitab al-'Umda fi Sina'a al-Jiraha by Ibn al-Quff.

The aim of this study is to investigate the knowledge on head wounds contained in the Kitab al-'Umda fi Sina'a al-Jiraha, written by Ibn al-Quff in the thirteenth century. This study was based on a copy of the Kitab al-'Umda fi Sina'a al-Jiraha, printed in 2 volumes in Da'ira al-Ma'arif al-Uthmaniyya in Hyderabad in 1356/1937-38 and reprinted by the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University. This printed copy was compared with the manuscript of Istanbul University Rare Works Library, Arabic Manuscripts, A 4749. Relevant chapters were translated from Arabic to English, after which they were thoroughly examined. Obtained knowledge is presented in the Results section and is compared in the Discussion section with other reports of this subject. The first chapter classified head wounds into 6 types: the first 3 types are conservatively treated and the remaining 3 types are surgically treated. This chapter also presents information on how to proceed when there is a head wound-related hemorrhage, which medications should be used, and which are the adequate treatment protocols. The second chapter discusses the symptoms and signs that follow head blow and fall injuries. The characteristics and noteworthy circumstances of skull fractures as well as the surgical treatment methods are included in the fifteenth chapter, which is concluded with surgery-related complications. The present study shows that Ibn al-Quff benefited from his predecessors' knowledge and made some considerable contributions to this subject.

Regarding pandemics: Ibn Jatima from Almería anticipates the physiopathological concept of multi-organ failure in the 14th century.

In 1348, a pandemic known as Black Death devastated humanity and changed social, economic and geopolitical world order, as is the current case with SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. The doctor of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, Ibn-Jatima from Almeria, wrote "Treatise on the Plague", in which it may be found epidemiological and clinical similarities between both plagues. In the context of Greco-Arab medicine, he discovered respiratory and contact contagion of Pestis and attributed its physiopathology to a lack of pulmonary cooling of the innate heat, generated in the heart and carried by the blood humor. The process described was equivalent to the oxygen transport system. Furthermore, it was supposed to generate toxic residues, such as free radicals, leading to an irreversible multiple organ failure (MOF), considered a mortality factor as in Covid-19. Due to its similitude, it would be the first antecedent of the MOF physiopathological concept, a finding that enriches the scientific and historical heritage of our clinical specialty.