[Inheritance of Yunling and rise of Anling: producing areas of Fuling in local chronicles of the Qing Dynasty].

There are abundant local chronicles in the Qing Dynasty, which provide rich literature for the research on the production of medicinal materials. This paper collates the contents of Fuling in the local chronicles of the Qing Dynasty to reveal the distribution of Fuling in China at that time. The distribution of Fuling in the local chronicles of the Qing Dynasty involved 318 county-level regions in 23 provinces. The distribution records were mainly found in Yunnan, Anhui, Hunan, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, and Hubei. The local chronicles of the Qing Dynasty showed that Yunnan was the Dao-di producing area of Fuling, which was consistent with the materia medica of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In the Qing Dynasty, the quality of Fuling in Dabie Mountains of Anhui was excellent, and it was called "Anling". The development of Anling benefited from the introduction of planting technology from Yunnan and the development of characteristic cultivation technology, with the formation of a complete industrial chain covering planting, processing, and sales. The abundant historical materials of Fuling in the local chronicles of the Qing Dynasty provide not only a documentary basis for revealing the changes of the Dao-di producing areas but also a historical context for the development of modern Fuling-producing areas such as Fujian, Jiangxi, and Hunan. In addition to the information of producing areas, the local records recorded the quality, commodity evaluation, and cultivation techniques of Fuling, filling the gaps in ancient materia medica books and providing detailed historical materials for understanding the producing areas and application of Fuling in the Qing Dynasty.

The Perception and Treatment of People about Abscesses in the Song Period: Focus on Hongmai Yijianzhi.

During the Song period, abscesses were a disease that could affect anyone regardless of their class. This study examines how people at that time explained the cause of abscesses and their efforts to treat them, focusing on the experiences of those who suffered from abscesses and their families. Previous research on disease history during the Song period primarily focused on ailments like colds and infectious diseases , or plagues prevalent in the southern regions of China. On the other hand, examining abscesses as a common everyday illness that could affect anyone and considering them from the perspective of patients' experiences has remained unexplored in previous studies. To reconstruct the experiences of Song period patients, this study analyzes over sixty anecdotes related to abscesses found in Yi Jian Zhi written by Hong Mai. These cases span across the mid to late 12th century, with a majority of the patients being from the literati () class or connected to the literati. These anecdotes exhibit two distinct trends. One focuses on narratives surrounding the onset of abscesses, attributing their cause primarily to the patients' lifestyle. When the cause of the abscesses was unknown, people metaphorically attributed its onset to perceived blasphemy against God, an act of killing, negligence in duties, or other wrongdoings. This trend is evident among the literati class in particular, where abscesses were often linked to factors such as excessive legal executions or exploitation, and even acts of killing people. Except for those cases, in explaining the cause of abscesses in commoners, there were instances caused by a pediculus infestation, while in case of literati, Dansha () poisoning was a common cause. It is interesting to note that the narrative tradition, prevalent in official history biographies, which attributes the onset of abscesses to worries and resentment, was not evident in written records such as Yi Jian Zhi. Furthermore, the detailed description of external similarities, portraying abscesses as traces of punishment from the underground realm, is a narrative characteristic that solidified such stereotypical perceptions. The literati's notion that they should alert people through these related anecdotes contributed to the spread of this perception. Another trend in these anecdotes was centered around narratives of abscess treatment, where the focus shifted primarily to seeking "doctors," unlike the metaphorical explanations of abscess onset causes and processes. When afflicted with abscesses, people generally sought out those renowned surgeons, known as Yang-yi , and those famous for treating abscesses. In local communities, individuals who had "received the divine secrets of abscesses," those possessing their own mysterious abscesses cures, and those famous for generations for treating abscesses by using stone acupuncture were active. Such information about them was shared within the local societies. Their treatment predominantly consisted of surgical procedures to lance abscesses and drain pus, which often led patients to endure significant pain during the treatment process. In many cases, such patients sought treatment from well-known local surgeons and abscess specialists who surgically treated them. The literati, who are said to have influenced the development of pulse-centered medical and academic medicine in China, also sought out surgeons for abscess treatment. Medical formularies compiled by the court as well as privately published ones rarely mentioned surgical methods utilizing tools. The fact that surgical techniques were utilized in local regions at that time indicates a disparity between the official medical practices documented in texts and the practical methods employed in local communities. An analysis of approximately sixty anecdotes related to abscesses shows that abscesses were characterized by unknown causes and excruciating pain. Their onset was often attributed to the patient's lifestyle and wrongdoings, and they were also perceived as punishment for one's wrongdoings. However, as it was a disease where treatment effects could be relatively easily observed through surgical procedures, there was a proactive utilization of the locally formed treatment environment, preferring surgical interventions over relying on religious powers. Contrary to the medical trends and methods outlined in medical literature, surgical treatments were prevalent as the chosen method of treatment among the population in local communities. It appears that the realities experienced, reasoned, and shared by people in the Song period regarding the perception and response to abscesses did not necessarily align with those of mainstream medical practices. Moreover, despite attributing the onset of abscesses to one's wrongdoing, there was a preference for seeking surgeons or Yang-yi over religious methods in their treatment, reflecting a characteristic of the local medical culture surrounding abscesses during the Song period.

Revisiting Traditional Chinese Medicine in Hong Kong during the Influenza Epidemics in the 1950s and 1960s.

This paper examines the supply and utilization of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in Hong Kong during the influenza epidemics of the 1950s and 1960s. Existing narratives of TCM in Hong Kong have predominantly framed with within the dichotomy of Western medicine "Xiyi" and Chinese medicine "Zhongyi," portraying TCM as marginalized and nearly wiped out by colonial power. Departing from this binary opposition, this study views TCM as an autonomous space that had never been subjugated by the colonial power which opted for minimal interventionist approach toward TCM. By adopting diachronic and synchronic perspectives on Hong Kong's unique environment shaped by its colonial history and the geopolitics of the Cold War in East Asia, particularly its relationships with "China," this research seeks to reassess the role and status of TCM in post-World War II Hong Kong. In Hong Kong, along with other countries in East Asia, traditional medicine has ceded its position as mainstream medicine to Western medicine. Faced with the crisis of "extinction," Chinese medical professionals, including medical practitioners and merchant groups, persistently sought solidarity and "self-renewal." In the 1950s and 1960s, the colonial authorities heavily relied on private entities, including charity hospitals and clinics; furthermore, there was a lack of provision of public healthcare and official prevention measures against the epidemic influenza. As such, it is not surprising that the Chinese utilized TCM, along with Western medicine, to contain the epidemics which brought about an explosive surge in the number of patients from novel influenza viruses. TCM was significantly consumed during these explosive outbreaks of influenza in 1957 and 1968. In making this argument, this paper firstly provides an overview of the associations of Chinese medical practitioners and merchants who were crucial to the development of TCM in Hong Kong. Secondly, it analyzes one level of active provision and consumption of Chinese medicine during the two flu epidemics, focusing on the medical practices of TCM practitioners in the 1957 epidemic. While recognizing the etiologic agent or agents of the disease as influenza viruses, the group of Chinese medical practitioners of the Chinese Medical Society in Hong Kong adopted the basic principles of traditional medicine regarding influenza, such as Shanghanlun and Wenbingxue, to distinguish the disease status among patients and prescribe medicine according to correct diagnoses, which were effective. Thirdly, this paper examines the level of folk culture among the people, who utilized famous prescriptions of Chinese herbal medicine and alimentotherapy, in addition to Chinese patent medicines imported from mainland China. In the context of regional commercial network, this section also demonstrates how Hong Kong served as a sole exporting port of medicinal materials (e.g., Chinese herbs) and Chinese patent medicines from the People's Republic of China to capitalist markets, including Hong Kong, under the socialist planned or controlled economy in the 1950s and 1960s. It was not only the efficacy of TCM in restoring immunity and alleviating symptoms of the human body, but also the voluntary efforts of these Chinese medical practitioners who sought to defend national medicine "Guoyi," positioning it as complementary and alternative medicine to scientific medicine. Additionally, merchants who imported and distributed Chinese medicinal materials and national "Guochan" Chinese patent medicine played a crucial role, as did the people who utilized Chinese medicine, all of which contributed to making TCM thrive in colonial Hong Kong.

Historical evolution and processing mechanism of 'nine steaming and nine drying' of traditional Chinese medicine preparation.

CONTEXT: Nine steaming and nine drying is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) processing method and it is widely used for processing tonifying herbs. Modern research reveals that the repeated steaming and drying process varies the composition and clinical efficacy of TCM. OBJECTIVE: This paper analyzes and explores the historical evolution, research progress, development strategies, and problems encountered in the nine steaming and nine drying process so as to provide a reasonable explanation for this method. METHODS: English and Chinese literature from 1986 to 2023 was collected from databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2020 (CP), and CNKI (Chinese). Nine steaming and nine drying, processing, TCM and pharmacological activity were used as the key words. RESULTS: Nine steaming and nine drying has undergone thousands of years of clinical practice. Under specific processing conditions of nine steaming and nine drying, the ingredients of the TCM have significant changes, which in turn altered clinical applications. CONCLUSIONS: This review provides sufficient evidence to prove the rationality and scientific value of nine steaming and nine drying and puts forward a development direction for future research.

[Acupuncture theory in Huangdi Neijing and launching the natural history of body].

Chinese traditional medicine is long in the natural history, which focuses on herbal medicine, but has less discussion on acupuncture. On the basis of exploring the body knowledge in Huangdi Neijing (The Yellow Emperor 's Inner Canon) from the perspective of the natural history, especially through the investigation of the evolution of acupoint knowledge, the route of the natural history of body in Huangdi Neijing have been detected in the aspects of observation, record, nomination and classification. In Huangdi Neijing, the natural history of body is characterized by the object annotation, the interaction between the nature and things, and the practicability. Launching the natural history of body is of great significance to understanding the generation of classical body knowledge and constructing acupuncture theory.

Overview of the Evolution of Hypertension: From Ancient Chinese Emperors to Today.

Hypertension is one of the most commonly treated conditions in modern medical practice, but despite its long history, it was largely ignored until the midpoint of the 20th century. This article will review the origins of elevated blood pressure from when it was first appreciated in 2600 BC to its most recent emerging treatments. Awareness of sustained elevations in blood pressure goes back to the Chinese Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (2600 BC); even then, salt was appreciated as a contributor to elevated pressure. Early treatments included acupuncture, venesection, and bleeding by leeches. About 1000 years later, the association between the palpated pulse and the development of heart and brain diseases was described by Ebers Papyrus (1550 BC). But really, it has only been since well after World War II that hypertension has finally been appreciated as the cause of so much heart, stroke, and kidney disease. We review the development of effective treatments for hypertension while acknowledging that so many people with hypertension in need of treatment have unacceptably poor blood pressure control. We explore why, despite our considerable and growing knowledge of hypertension, it remains a significant public health problem globally.

How Did the Clinical Medicine Progress during the Unified Silla Era: Installment of the Medical Education Center 'Uihak', and Its Effects.

In this research, I aimed to recognize the historical meaning of installing the medical education center, 'Uihak', during the Silla dynasty. 'Uihak' was installed in 692, in the first year of King Hyoso 's rule. 'Uihak' was founded by using various Chinese medical classics as its textbooks for medical education, such as the Classic of Plain Questions. The wooden prescriptions excavated from Anapji, which is thought to have been created in the middle of the 8th century, and the Chinese medical book Prescriptions for Universal Benefit, which the envoy of Silla tried to acquire in 803, reflect the idea on medicine during that period in Silla. By this time, the field of medicine began to develop the idea to discern the locations and mechanism of disease patterns by centering on the viscera and bowels while making use of the herbal prescriptions based on various drugs. This means that clinical medicine founded upon the medical education achieved in 'Uihak' was being realized in the medical fields as well. According to the Chronicles of the Three States, for the illness of Queen Sunduk in 636, medicine, praying, and the method of esoteric Buddhism was tried out as a means of her cure. Comparatively, for the treatment of the first rank Chunggong in 822, the Kingdom's representative doctor with professional medical knowledge was sought out to fine a cure. The analyses of the human disease, diagnosis, treatment method, etc., given by the kingdom's representative doctor were identical to those recommended in the medical textbooks used in 'Uihak'. As such, we can posit that his academic background was 'Uihak' and the education given there. The Classic of Materia Medica, which was also used in 'Uihak', was a book professionally centered on the drug branch of medicine. The Classic of Materia Medica is a terminology referring to various books on drugs, including the Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica, the Variorum of the Classic of Materia Medica, the Newly Revised Materia Medica, etc. Thus, we cannot specify what the classic of Materia Medica actually taught, based on only its terminology. However, based on the wooden prescriptions excavated from Anapji, and from the terminology of drugs recorded in the drug trading document Purchase List for Silla goods preserved in Shosoin of Japan, we can hypothesize that in the middle of the 8th century, the Newly Revised Materia Medica was indeed being circulated. Based on these evidences, we can also hypothesize that Silla was part of the network of drug trading that encompassed the entire region of Asia. After unifying the Korean peninsula, the Kingdom of Silla actively adopted the medical educational system of Tang China. By using the obtained medical knowledge, Silla cured illnesses and used the medical knowledge on various drugs recorded in the Newly Revised Materia Medica to pursue trade with China, Japan, and other countries. Through the installation of 'Uihak', the same medicine has now begun to be officially used in East Asia, including Silla.

[A review of the influence of the 1956 Senior Teacher Training Program on Medical History].

The 1956 Senior Teacher Training Program on Medical History, hosted by the Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Health, was the first teacher training program on the history of medicine in higher education in P. R. China. It was designed in the context of "Learning from the Soviet Union" for teaching reformation, "Integrating Western and Traditional Chinese Medicine" and performing the policy of "Blossom of Hundred Flowers and Contention of Hundred Schools of Thought" (by Mao Zedong for encouraging a variety of thinking conflicts) after the birth of the New China. The teaching management for the program was well organised, with a strong staff, and outcomes. A few of the trainees from this program were engaged in teaching and research of the history of medicine, and made outstanding academic achievements and promoted the teaching and research of the history of medicine in Chinese universities in the second half of the 20th century. This program also provides a valuable reference for teacher training programs as well as teaching and research of medical history today.

[P.F. von Siebold and his destiny with Chinese materia medica (Ben Cao)].

P. F. von Siebold (1796-1866) was a physician at the Dutch Business Centre (Shang Wu Hui Guan) located at Nagasaki, Japan, in the Edo period. He collected a great amount of botanical and mineral specimens, books, and living wares when he stayed in Japan. He brought these materials to Europe and kept some of them at the Japan Museum Siebold Huis in Leiden in Netherlands. This collection showed the role of Siebold in connecting scientific and cultural exchanges between East and West and provided references in the research of the transmission of traditional Chinese medicine worldwide in the 19th century.

[The understanding of chronic rhinitis in traditional Chinese medicine and the definition of nasal obstruction disease].

This paper reports on review of the conceptual cognition and definition of chronic rhinitis in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Diseases with nasal congestion as the main symptom were recorded in The Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic (Huang Di Nei Jing) and Medical Bamboo slips of Wu Wei(Wu Wei Yi Jian), but these diseases had not been given names at that point in time. Chronic rhinitis and acute rhinitis had not been distinguished clearly. Some symptoms, in ancient Chinese medical books, indicated some possibility as those of chronic rhinitis, such as "bi weng"(), "stuffy nose"(), "anosmia" (), "nasal obstruction"(), "stuffy nose with anosmia"() and " poor nasal passages" ().In the first half of the last century, "biyuan"(), "biweng" () and "stuffy nose"() were classified at the symptoms of chronic rhinitis with the same names in traditional Chinese medicine. "Biyuan" was widely used at that time, but was gradually eliminated for the lack of semantic meaning. In the 1970s, "nasal obstruction" was proposed by many textbooks as the name of TCM for chronic rhinitis. In 1980, "nasal obstruction disease"() was finally specified as the formal name by Otorhinolaryngology of TCM (the 4th edition), the national unified textbook. This term has been widely accepted in the field of traditional Chinese medicine, driven by the united textbooks and clinical guidelines, while it is still insufficient in the perspective of meaning and science. The process of normalisation of "nasal obstruction disease" shows that the name of chronic rhinitis in ancient Chinese medicine is not equivalent to its term in modern medicine. It also suggests that the comparison of disease names between traditional Chinese medicine and western medicine must be fully investigated. It is necessary to understand the differences between ancient and modern connotations of terminology when reading and using ancient Chinese medicine literature.

[The "jivaniya class of herbs" (Shi Tian Yao) in the Bower Manuscript (Bao Wei Er Xie Ben)].

The Bower Manuscript (Bao Wei Er Xie Ben) is a Sanskrit document unearthed in Xinjiang in the 19th century. The ten drugs, which tasted sweet, and used widely were named as the "jivaniya class of herbs" (Shi Tian Yao) in this document . It was found that "jivaniya" tasted sweet, felt cold and was often used in tonic decoction for relieving serious vata (Feng), with references to the ancient medical book Ayurveda and the modern Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia. "Jivaniya" was constructed with different dossage forms, such as butter, oil, enema, ointment. It can treat some diseases of consumption of the lungs, epilepsy, consumptive diseases and fever of children in Bower Manuscript (Bao Wei Er Xie Ben). The theories of "jivaniya" came from Ayurveda. Compared with the theories of traditional Chinese Medicine, the theory that "jivaniya" can treat consumptive diseases appears similar to the theories in Su Wen about "Feng Xiao". The theories of Traditional Indian medicine and Chinese medicine appear resemblant, such as the commonalities in terms of using sweet tonics with liquorice and Fritillaria cirrhosa to treat comsumptive diseases.

[Systemic and pathogenetic approach: a new look at traditional Chinese medicine]. / Sistemno-patogeneticheskii podkhod: novyi vzglyad na traditsionnuyu kitaiskuyu meditsinu.

A mere focused medical specialization and standardization, the lack of a holistic, systemic view of the human body, leads to a deadlock in the further development of modern medicine. P.K. Anokhin's functional systems theory (1935) made a breakthrough in medical science, setting it in a new direction. So far, however, the fundamental aspects of this theory have not been fully applied in practice. Till the present day, there is an endless accumulation of scientific facts that are not united by a holistic ideology. Nevertheless, the truly systemic approach proclaimed in the twentieth century by P.K. Anokhin has been used by mankind since ancient times, particularly in Chinese traditional medicine (CTM). Its basic postulates, the concept of Yin-Yang, Wuxing (system of five primary elements), the idea of acupuncture points and body channels, do not contradict up-to-date scientific data, and every year they draw new confirmations of their relevance. At the same time, they provide a clear vision of the general patterns of the whole body function and the interaction of its parts. The authors propose a transition to a whole new level of knowledge of the human body, called the «systemic and pathogenetic approach.¼ It allows considering an illness according to CTM as a result of dysfunction of an integral system of a body. Properly set medical thinking based on this approach will lead to adequate diagnosis and the choice of the proper treatment for many diseases.

[Textual research on varieties of Draconis Sanguis].

This paper reviewed the historical evolution of the varieties of Draconis Sanguis in traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) and discussed several doubts. Draconis Sanguis used in ancient Europe and Arabia was derived from Dracaena plants, and that originating from Southeast Asia entered the market in the 16 th century. Draconis Sanguis was introduced into China in the 5 th century at the latest and was once mixed with shellac for use. Draconis Sanguis in the Tang Dynasty and before was the resin of Dracaena plants. Scholars in the Song Dynasty have known that Draconis Sanguis came from the resin of tall trees, but their understanding of origin plants was inconsistent with the facts. The origin of Draconis Sanguis in the Song Dynasty was basically determined to be Mirbat(Maliba), Cengtan, and Somali, as well as Socotra Archipelago. About 1371-1416, Draconis Sanguis prepared from Daemonorops draco was imported into China, and was recorded earlier in The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores(Ying Ya Sheng Lan) and Code of Great Ming Dynasty(Da Ming Hui Dian). Draconis Sanguis prepared from Dracaena plants was still authentic for a long time after the import of that from D. draco into China. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Dian Zhi(1625), a lost edition of Materia Medica in Southern Yunnan(Dian Nan Ben Cao), Textual Research on Reality and Titles of Plants(Zhi Wu Ming Shi Tu Kao), and other local chronicles recorded that a new type of Draconis Sanguis(Mu Xue Jie) was produced in Yuanjiang, Yunnan province. The New Yunnan Chronicles of the Republic of China recorded the production of another type of Draconis Sanguis(Qi Lin Jie) in Xishuangbanna. However, the authenticity of the above two types has been difficult to confirm. In modern times, Draconis Sanguis prepared from D. draco gradually became the mainstream variety. In the 1970 s, Dracaena cochinchinensi was found in Yunnan and other provinces, and Draconis Sanguis from D. cochinchinensi was developed. This study is expected to provide a solid and reliable literature support for the research and development of Draconis Sanguis, enrich historical materials, and provide new clues for follow-up research.

The interpretation of human body in traditional Chinese medicine and its influence on the characteristics of TCM theory.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a long history of serving the Chinese people's health since its birth, including playing an important role in treating and preventing COVID-19 in 2020. The fact that TCM has been used in China for thousands of years shows the value and reason why it must exist. Although TCM has been or is being questioned, there is no doubt about its importance in terms of efficacy. This article focuses on how TCM understands the human body in comparison with anatomy knowledge in western medicine and discusses the development and advances of TCM in terms of the body view and the theory innovation. The purpose is to let foreign scholars get better understanding of TCM from this perspective.

Archaeobotanical evidence of the use of medicinal cannabis in a secular context unearthed from south China.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: As one of the first plants used by ancient people, cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years. The long history of medicinal cannabis use contrasts with the paucity of archaeobotanical records. Moreover, physical evidence of medicinal cannabis use in a secular context is much rarer than evidence of medicinal cannabis use in religious or ritual activities, which impedes our understanding of the history of medicinal cannabis use. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study aims to provide archaeobotanical evidence of medicinal cannabis use and analyse the specific medicinal usage of cannabis in a secular context in ancient times. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Plant remains were collected from the Laoguanshan Cemetery of the Han Dynasty in Chengdu, South China, with the archaeological flotation process and were identified based on morphological and anatomical characteristics. The examination of the medicinal significance of the remains relied on the investigation of the documentation on unearthed medical bamboo slips, the diseases of the tomb occupants, the cemetery's cultural background and Chinese historical records. RESULTS: The botanical remains were accurately identified as cannabis. More than 120 thousand fruits were found, which represents the largest amount of cannabis fruit remains that have been statistically analysed from any cemetery in the world thus far. The cannabis fruits are suspected to have been used for medical purposes in a secular context and were most likely used to stop severe bleeding of the uterus and treat lumbago and/or arthralgia. CONCLUSIONS: The cannabis fruit remains reported here likely represent the first physical evidence of medicinal cannabis use for the treatment of metrorrhagia, severe lumbago, and/or arthralgia. This study emphasizes the importance of the evidence of the diseases suffered by the occupants of the tomb in determining the medicinal use of cannabis in a secular context and contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the ancient history of medicinal cannabis.

Traditional Chinese medicine for dementia.

In Western medicine, dementia refers to a spectrum of diseases affecting cognition, mental health, and physical abilities. Ancient medical literatures of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) also recorded dementia-like symptoms, but described the disease from a totally distinct theoretical point of view. The earliest records of memory loss in ancient China can be traced back 2000 years earlier. In TCM, dementia can be attributed mainly to the Brain dystrophy, Spleen-Kidney weakness, Blood stasis, and Phlegm stagnation. Of interest, ancient Chinese physicians have proposed that dementia manifests as not only cognitive but also noncognitive symptoms including psychiatric disorders and sleep disturbance, which have been investigated widely nowadays in Western medicine. Various TCM prescriptions, herbal medicines, and acupunctures have also been proposed for dementia prevention and therapy. Some of these strategies are still used in current clinical practice. Reviewing and highlighting the unique TCM recognition of treating dementia may shed light on future dementia research.

Analysis of historical changes in traditional Chinese medicine based on an Indonesian collection of Chinese materia medica from c. 1870.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Traditional Chinese Medicine is subject to changes over time: product names, botanical ingredients, processing methods and uses have varied throughout the course of history. Historic collections of Chinese materia medica (CMM) are of great value for research on the evolvement, development and variability of Chinese herbal medicine over time. These changes may have a significant influence on the safety and efficiency of nowadays' clinical practice. Here we investigate a historic collection of Chinese medicinal products purchased in Indonesia in c. 1870, containing about 395 specimens. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study compares the specimens contained in late 19th century collection of CMM with contemporary marketed materials by investigating changes in vernacular names, botanical identity and processing methods which are important aspects for safety and clinical practice today. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The contents and associated documentation of the CMM collection of Dr. C.H.A. Westhoff (University Museum Utrecht) were revised by means of morphological identification and study of the associated historic documentation. We compared this Westhoff collection with contemporary CMM, information from literature and various quality standards, including the official Chinese pharmacopoeia. RESULTS: The Westhoff collection represents a unique, well preserved collection of Chinese materia medica, with original uniform bottles, Chinese labels and a partly intact handwritten catalogue. Among the 395 specimens (bottles) of CMM surveyed, there are 387 contain a single component drug, while eight contain multiple components drugs. A total of 293 of the 395 specimens are mentioned in the modern Chinese pharmacopoeia. Ca. 25% of the specimens had been processed, such as stir-fried with or without adjuvants. Our analysis of local Chinese names, botanical content and processing methods indicate that this collection originates from southern part of China, possibly including in the region of Taiwan and was meant as a showcase for pharmaceutical education and/or as curiosity object. CONCLUSION: Differences in vernacular names, plant parts and processing methods between the Westhoff collection and the current Chinese pharmacopoeia illustrate the regional variety of CMM and changes in CMM in the course of time. This work contributes to the understanding of the evolvement of CMM from a historic perspective.

Traditional Chinese medicine combined with pulmonary drug delivery system and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: Rationale and therapeutic potential.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive pulmonary interstitial inflammatory disease of unknown etiology, and is also a sequela in severe patients with the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Nintedanib and pirfenidone are the only two known drugs which are conditionally recommended for the treatment of IPF by the FDA. However, these drugs pose some adverse side effects such as nausea and diarrhoea during clinical applications. Therefore, it is of great value and significance to identify effective and safe therapeutic drugs to solve the clinical problems associated with intake of western medicine. As a unique medical treatment, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has gradually exerted its advantages in the treatment of IPF worldwide through a multi-level and multi-target approach. Further, to overcome the current clinical problems of oral and injectable intakes of TCM, pulmonary drug delivery system (PDDS) could be designed to reduce the systemic metabolism and adverse reactions of the drug and to improve the bioavailability of drugs. Through PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and CNKI, we retrieved articles published in related fields in recent years, and this paper has summarized twenty-seven Chinese compound prescriptions, ten single TCM, and ten active ingredients for effective prevention and treatment of IPF. We also introduce three kinds of inhaling PDDS, which supports further research of TCM combined with PDDS to treat IPF.

Current Policies and Measures on the Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine in China.

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a medical science and cultural heritage empirically applied and reserved by Chinese people for thousands of years. With comprehensive prosperity of China and rapid elaboration of technology, healthcare status of Chinese people has become one of the most crucial concerns of the country. Nearly 30 policies and measures regarding TCM development have been issued since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of People's Republic of China in 2012. This review introduced a detailed evolutionary course of TCM in China with an emphasis on understanding the roadmap of TCM related policies and measures in China.