Intergenerational educational mobility over the past century in Canada.

Young adults born at the end of the 20th century attend colleges and universities at much higher rates than did previous generations, which might give the impression of greater upward educational mobility and in turn, greater class mobility. This impression occurs, however, only because of structural expansion of the Canadian education system. In contrast to structural change, exchange mobility highlights the linkage between one's social origins and destinations. This speaks more directly to questions of equality of educational opportunity and social fairness. Greater fairness or social progress occurs when, over time, destinations become less contingent on origins. We examine intergenerational exchange mobility in Canada by investigating how, if at all, the linkage between parents' and their children's education has changed over the past century. We construct a longitudinal dataset covering the 20th century by merging fifteen cross-sectional surveys from Statistics Canada's General Social Survey (GSS) between 1986 and 2014. Comparing across synthetic birth cohorts we focus on transition probabilities, odds ratios, and logistic regression estimates to measure change. We contribute to a growing gap in the Canadian literature since social mobility has been largely neglected by sociologists as of late. We compare our results to recent findings of economists who examine intergenerational income mobility, another indicator of class mobility. Consistent with earlier sociological and economic research, our results show that despite the tremendous expansion of Canada's education systems, intergenerational exchange mobility for both women and men has been stagnant in Canada over the past century.

Les jeunes adultes nés à la fin du XXe siècle fréquentent les collèges et les universités à un rythme beaucoup plus élevé que les générations précédentes, ce qui pourrait donner l'impression d'une plus grande mobilité ascendante en matière d'éducation et, par conséquent, d'une plus grande mobilité de classe. Cette impression ne se produit toutefois qu'en raison de l'expansion structurelle du système d'éducation canadien. Contrairement au changement structurel, la mobilité d'échange met en évidence le lien entre les origines et les destinations sociales d'une personne. Elle renvoie plus directement aux questions d'égalité des chances en matière d'éducation et d'équité sociale. Une plus grande équité ou un progrès social se produit lorsque, au fil du temps, les destinations deviennent moins dépendantes des origines. Nous examinons la mobilité intergénérationnelle des échanges au Canada en étudiant comment, le cas échéant, le lien entre l'éducation des parents et celle de leurs enfants a changé au cours du siècle dernier. Nous construisons un ensemble de données longitudinales couvrant le 20e siècle en fusionnant quinze enquêtes transversales de l'Enquête sociale générale (ESG) de Statistique Canada entre 1986 et 2014. En comparant des cohortes de naissance synthétiques, nous nous concentrons sur les probabilités de transition, les rapports de cotes et les estimations de régression logistique pour mesurer le changement. Nous contribuons à combler une lacune croissante dans la littérature canadienne puisque la mobilité sociale a été largement négligée par les sociologues ces derniers temps. Nous comparons nos résultats aux conclusions récentes des économistes qui examinent la mobilité intergénérationnelle des revenus, un autre indicateur de la mobilité des classes. Conformément aux recherches sociologiques et économiques antérieures, nos résultats montrent que, malgré la formidable expansion des systèmes d'éducation au Canada, la mobilité intergénérationnelle des échanges, tant pour les femmes que pour les hommes, a stagné au Canada au cours du siècle dernier.

Movilidad en ciudades de Perú durante la pandemia de COVID-19 / Mobility in cities of Peru during the COVID-19 pandemic / Mobilidade em cidades do Peru durante a pandemia COVID-19

RESUMEN Introducción: Los datos de movilidad en tiempo real de Wuhan, China, y datos de casos detallados, incluido el historial de viajes, para determinar el impacto de las medidas de control, fue de vital importancia para el control de la COVID-19. Objetivo: Analizar los casos reportados en los cinco regiones más afectadas de Perú por la COVID-19 y la correlacion con los datos de movilidad. Método: Se incluyeron los datos de los casos confirmados de COVID-19 que fueron obtenidos del Centro Nacional de Epidemiologia, Prevención y Control de Enfermedades de Perú (https://www.dge.gob.pe/), en el periodo desde 6 de emarzo hasta el 17 de agosto de 2020, y se seleccionaron las regiones con mayor cantidad de casos (CDC-Peru) (Arequipa, Callao, Lima, Lambayeque y Piura). Los datos de movilidad fueron obtenidos de los Informes de Movilidad Local (Community Mobility Reports-Google Mobility Reports) (https://www.google.com/covid19/mobility/) del Perú y se descargaron en un archivo CSV. Las categorias incluidas de los reportes de movilidad fueron: tiendas minoristas y ocio, estaciones de transporte público, lugares de trabajo y zonas residenciales. Resultados: Se analizaron 165 datos encontrados en Google Mobility Reports, estos tenían una frecuencia diaria de datos, la misma cantidad de datos fue obtenida del CDC-Perú. Se observó una caída de todos los lugares estudiados menos de las zonas residenciales a nivel país. En cuanto a las asociaciones se encontró una correlacion negativa solo en las zonas residenciales. Conclusión: Hubo una reducción de movilidad dada por la cuarentena y un factor protector para evitar contagios es el permanecer en casa.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Real-time mobility data from Wuhan, China, and detailed case data, including travel history, was of vital importance for the control of COVID-19, in order to determine the impact of control measures. Objective: To analyze the cases reported in the five most affected regions by COVID-19 in Peru, and its correlation with mobility data. Method: Data of the confirmed cases of COVID-19 obtained from the Centro Nacional de Epidemiologia, Prevención y Control de Enfermedades de Perú (National Center for Epidemiology, Prevention and Control of Diseases of Peru) (https://www.dge.gob.pe/) in the period from 6 From March until August 17, 2020 were included; and the regions with the highest number of cases (CDC-Peru) (Arequipa, Callao, Lima, Lambayeque and Piura) were selected. The mobility data was obtained from the Local Mobility Reports (Community Mobility Reports-Google Mobility Reports) (https://www.google.com/covid19/mobility/) of Peru and downloaded in a CSV file. The categories included in the mobility reports were: retail stores and leisure, public transport stations, workplaces and residential areas. Results: 165 data found in Google Mobility Reports were analyzed; these having a daily data frequency. The same amount of data was obtained from the CDC-Peru. A drop was observed in all places studied except for residential areas in the country. Regarding associations, a negative correlation was found only in residential areas. Conclusion: There was a reduction in mobility due to quarantine, and staying at home is a factor to avoid infections.

RESUMO Introdução: Dados de mobilidade em tempo real de Wuhan, China, e dados detalhados de casos, incluindo histórico de viagens, para determinar o impacto das medidas de controle, foram de vital importância para o controle do COVID-19. Objetivo: Analisar os casos notificados nas cinco regiões mais afetadas pelo COVID-19 no Peru e a correlação com os dados de mobilidade. Método: Foram incluídos os dados dos casos confirmados de COVID-19 obtidos do Centro Nacional de Epidemiologia, Prevención y Control de Enfermedades de Perú (https://www.dge.gob.pe/), no período desde 6 de março até 17 de agosto de 2020, sendo selecionadas as regiões com maior número de casos (CDC-Peru) (Arequipa, Callao, Lima, Lambayeque e Piura). Os dados de mobilidade foram obtidos dos Relatórios de Mobilidade Local (Community Mobility Reports-Google Mobility Reports) (https://www.google.com/covid19/mobility/) do Peru e baixado em um arquivo CSV. As categorias incluídas nos relatórios de mobilidade foram: lojas de varejo e lazer, estações de transporte público, locais de trabalho e áreas residenciais. Resultados: Foram analisados 165 dados encontrados no Google Mobility Reports, estes tinham uma frequência de dados diária, a mesma quantidade de dados foi obtida do CDC-Peru. Uma queda foi observada em todos os locais estudados, exceto para áreas residenciais em nível de país. Em relação às associações, foi encontrada correlação negativa apenas nas áreas residenciais. Conclusões: Houve redução da mobilidade devido à quarentena e um fator de proteção para evitar o contágio é a permanência em casa.

Evolución de la estructura de clases y el bienestar material en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires contemporánea (2004-2015) / Evolution of class structure and material well-being in the contemporary City of Buenos Aires (2004-2015)

En este artículo analizamos los rasgos que asumió la estructura de clases de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (CABA) en el período 2004-2015. Utilizando como fuente de datos, principalmente, la Encuesta Anual de Hogares (EAH) relevada anualmente por la Dirección General de Estadística y Censos del Gobierno de la CABA, nos preguntamos acerca de cómo han evolucionado las clases sociales en términos de tamaño y composición, y cuánto se han distanciado o acercado respecto al bienestar material de los hogares que las conforman. Del análisis de los datos se desprende que la estructura de clases mantiene la configuración signada durante los años noventa, aunque con una relativa composición de la clase obrera calificada y la clase directivo-profesional. Por otro lado, el estudio de los ingresos y el acceso a la vivienda, en tanto dos activos del bienestar material de los hogares, muestra cierta reducción de la desigualdad respecto al primero, pero un fortalecimiento en las brechas respecto a la propiedad de la vivienda. (AU)

Long-term decline in intergenerational mobility in the United States since the 1850s.

We make use of newly available data that include roughly 5 million linked household and population records from 1850 to 2015 to document long-term trends in intergenerational social mobility in the United States. Intergenerational mobility declined substantially over the past 150 y, but more slowly than previously thought. Intergenerational occupational rank-rank correlations increased from less than 0.17 to as high as 0.32, but most of this change occurred to Americans born before 1900. After controlling for the relatively high mobility of persons from farm origins, we find that intergenerational social mobility has been remarkably stable. In contrast with relative stability in rank-based measures of mobility, absolute mobility for the nonfarm population-the fraction of offspring whose occupational ranks are higher than those of their parents-increased for birth cohorts born prior to 1900 and has fallen for those born after 1940.

Implications of gendered behaviour and contexts for social mobility in the USA: a nationally representative observational study.

BACKGROUND: We constructed measures of an individual's gendered behaviour and their gendered environment to investigate the salience of gender norms during adolescence for social mobility during the next decade of life. METHODS: In this nationally representative observational study, we collected individual-level data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), which enrolled a cohort of nationally representative school students aged 11-19 years from across the USA and followed them up for 14 years (ie, to age 25-33 years). We characterised gendered behaviour for adolescents in a performative sense via self-reports of behaviours and beliefs. We aggregated this individual-level measure to create a proxy measure of an individual's social context by taking averages for an individual's peers of the same sex and school year. FINDINGS: Between Jan 5, 1994, and Dec 26, 1995, Add Health collected data on a cohort of 20 745 students. 14 540 respondents were followed-up 14 years later between April 3, 2007, and Feb 1, 2009, of whom 7722 (53·1%) were female. More masculine male respondents were downwardly mobile; they were enrolled in school for fewer years and were more likely to have lower status jobs than their less masculine same-sex school peers. More masculine male respondents were also more likely to have jobs in occupational categories with larger proportions of males than their same-sex school peers. Gendered behaviour was not predictive of future educational and occupational attainment for female respondents. Male adolescents in school years with more masculine same-sex peers than male adolescents in other school years also tended to have lower educational and occupational attainment than their male peers. Educational and occupational attainment in early midlife for female respondents was not affected by their gendered environment. INTERPRETATION: Gender, when measured as a set of gender-distinct behaviours in adolescence, was associated with differential patterns of social mobility from adolescence to young adulthood. Moreover, variation in an individual's local gender norms has implications for subsequent socioeconomic attainment, especially for male adolescents. These findings have potential implications for observed health disparities. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

[Intragenerational Mobility and Subjective Health: Findings of the Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) 1992-2012]. / Intragenerationale Mobilität und subjektive Gesundheit ­ Ergebnisse des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels (SOEP) von 1992­2012.

AIM OF THE STUDY: International research suggests that mobility plays an important role in determining health in later life. The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between intragenerational mobility and subjective health on the basis of data from Germany, taking different periods from 1992 to 2012 into account. DATA AND METHODS: Data is derived from the Socio-economic Panel (GSOEP), taking three time periods into account (1992-1995, 2000-2003 and 2008-2012). Intragenerational mobility was measured by comparing first occupational position and current job. Logistic regressions were used in order to analyze the relationship between health and mobility. RESULTS: Men and women who were downwardly mobile in unemployment or stable low reported the worst health. Up- and downwardly mobile people were located between the stable-up and stable-low groups. The relationship was not affected by origin (East/West Germany). Yet, upward mobility was more common in West Germany and downward mobility was more frequent in East Germany. In general, men and women showed similar patterns. The relationship between intragenerational mobility and health remained stable over time. CONCLUSION: Occupational development showed a strong relationship with health in later life. Especially downward mobility into unemployment or staying in lower positions had strong influence on health. Socio-political measures should be taken to prevent a further divergence of health opportunities.

Places of Persistence: Slavery and the Geography of Intergenerational Mobility in the United States.

Intergenerational mobility has remained stable over recent decades in the United States but varies sharply across the country. In this article, I document that areas with more prevalent slavery by the outbreak of the Civil War exhibit substantially less upward mobility today. I find a negative link between prior slavery and contemporary mobility within states, when controlling for a wide range of historical and contemporary factors including income and inequality, focusing on the historical slave states, using a variety of mobility measures, and when exploiting geographical differences in the suitability for cultivating cotton as an instrument for the prevalence of slavery. As a first step to disentangle the underlying channels of persistence, I examine whether any of the five broad factors highlighted by Chetty et al. (2014a) as the most important correlates of upward mobility-family structure, income inequality, school quality, segregation, and social capital-can account for the link between earlier slavery and current mobility. More fragile family structures in areas where slavery was more prevalent, as reflected in lower marriage rates and a larger share of children living in single-parent households, is seemingly the most relevant to understand why it still shapes the geography of opportunity in the United States.

Declining social mobility? Evidence from five linked censuses in England and Wales 1971-2011.

In this paper we add to the existing evidence base on recent trends in inter-generational social mobility in England and Wales. We analyse data from the Office for National Statistics Longitudinal Study (ONS-LS), which links individual records from the five decennial censuses between 1971 and 2011. The ONS-LS is an excellent data resource for the study of social mobility because it has a very large sample size, excellent population coverage and low rates of nonresponse and attrition across waves. Additionally, the structure of the study means that we can observe the occupations of LS-members' parents when they were children and follow their own progress in the labour market at regular intervals into middle age. Counter to widespread prevailing beliefs, our results show evidence of a small but significant increase in social fluidity between 1950s and the 1980s for both men and women.

[Intergenerational mobility and health inequalities in East and West Germany : A trend analysis from 1992 to 2012]. / Intergenerationale Mobilität und gesundheitliche Ungleichheiten in Ost- und Westdeutschland : Eine Trendanalyse von 1992 bis 2012.

BACKGROUND: Social mobility processes, i. e. the movement of a person from one social position to another, are central mechanisms for explaining health inequalities. Social differences in health status or behaviour may also change with changes in social status. This article examines the importance of intergenerational mobility, i. e. the rise and fall of social status in relation to parental social position, for subjective health in East and West Germany and whether this relationship has changed over 20 years. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The data basis is the socio-economic panel from 1992-2012. Employees aged between 25 and 59 were taken into account. Different mobility paths were determined by comparing their current occupational positions with those of their parents. For these, prevalence and logistic regression of subjective health were calculated. RESULTS: Those in low occupational positions rated their health more often as being worse in all periods. Upwardly mobile individuals had a lower risk of poorer health (OR 0.72) compared to those who remained in their original position. Persons affected by downward mobility had a similarly worse self-rated health (OR 1.55 or OR 1.86). Significant differences in gender or region of origin (East-West Germany) could not be determined. Education and income contribute to explaining the relationship. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that social advancement has a positive effect on health, whereas social decline is negative - regardless of gender, region of origin or time. It is therefore important to reinforce political efforts aimed at increasing the mobility opportunities of all social groups in a positive sense and thus reducing social inequalities.

Moving up matters: Socioeconomic mobility prospectively predicts better physical health.

OBJECTIVE: Low socioeconomic status (SES) in childhood confers risk for poor physical health later in life. This study prospectively examines whether improvements in family SES protect youth from developing physical health problems by adulthood and whether such effects differ by race or age. METHOD: Participants are a school-based sample of urban Black (53%) and White (47%) men (N = 311). Using latent growth curve modeling, we prospectively examined whether changes in family SES measured annually between Ages 7 and 16 predicted physical health diagnoses in adulthood (Age 32). Family SES was assessed as a weighted composite of parental education and occupational status. Physical health diagnoses were assessed as a count of self-reported medical conditions from a health history interview. RESULTS: Consistent with macroeconomic trends, on average, family SES increased until the early 1990s, then remained flat until rising again in the mid-1990s. During each of 3 independent developmental periods, boys raised in families who experienced more positive changes in SES reported fewer physical health diagnoses in adulthood. These effects did not vary significantly by race and remained after controlling for initial childhood SES, childhood health problems, concurrent adult SES, and weight (Body Mass Index or reported overweight). CONCLUSIONS: Initial childhood SES did not predict physical health, whereas relative improvements in SES over a 10-year period did. If the families of Black and White boys were upwardly mobile, it appeared to protect them from developing physical disease, and upward mobility was additively protective across developmental periods examined here. (PsycINFO Database Record

Beyond the Parental Generation: The Influence of Grandfathers and Great-grandfathers on Status Attainment.

Studies on intergenerational social mobility usually examine the extent to which social positions of one generation determine the social positions of the next. This study investigates whether the persistence of inequality can be expected to stretch over more than two generations. Using a multigenerational version of GENLIAS, a large-scale database containing information from digitized Dutch marriage certificates during 1812-1922, this study describes and explains the influence of grandfathers and great-grandfathers on the occupational status attainment of 119,662 men in the Netherlands during industrialization. Multilevel regression models show that both grandfather's and great-grandfather's status influence the status attainment of men, after fathers and uncles are taken into account. Whereas the influence of the father and uncles decreases over time, that of the grandfather and great-grandfather remains stable. The results further suggest that grandfathers influence their grandsons through contact but also without being in contact with them. Although the gain in terms of explained variance from using a multigenerational model is moderate, leaving out the influence of the extended family considerably misrepresents the influence of the family on status attainment.

Perceptions of U.S. social mobility are divided (and distorted) along ideological lines.

The ability to move upward in social class or economic position (i.e., social mobility) is a defining feature of the American Dream, yet recent public-opinion polls indicate that many Americans are losing confidence in the essential fairness of the system and their opportunities for financial advancement. In two studies, we examined Americans' perceptions of both current levels of mobility in the United States and temporal trends in mobility, and we compared these perceptions with objective indicators to determine perceptual accuracy. Overall, participants underestimated current mobility and erroneously concluded that mobility has declined over the past four decades. These misperceptions were more pronounced among politically liberal participants than among politically moderate or conservative ones. These perception differences were accounted for by liberals' relative dissatisfaction with the current social system, social hierarchies, and economic inequality. These findings have important implications for theories of political ideology.

Late-preterm birth and lifetime socioeconomic attainments: the Helsinki birth cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: We examined if those born late-preterm (at 34 to 36 weeks of gestation) differed from those born at term in their maximum attained lifetime socioeconomic position (SEP) across the adult years up to 56 to 66 years, and in intergenerational social mobility from childhood parental SEP to own attained SEP. METHODS: Participants were 8993 Finnish men and women of the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study born between 1934 and 1944. Gestational age was extracted from hospital birth records and socioeconomic attainments from Finnish National Census. RESULTS: Compared with those born at term, those born late-preterm were more likely to be manual workers, have a basic or upper secondary level of education, belong to the lowest third based on their incomes, and less likely to belong to the highest third based on their incomes. Late-preterm individuals were also less likely to be upwardly mobile and more likely to be downwardly mobile; they were less likely to have higher occupations and more likely to have lower occupations than their fathers. They were also less likely to be upwardly mobile if incomes were used as the outcome of own attained SEP, and men were more likely to be downwardly mobile if education was used as the outcome of own attained SEP. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that there are considerable long-term socioeconomic disadvantages associated with late-preterm birth, which are not explained by the parent-of-origin SEP.

The influence of childhood IQ and education on social mobility in the Newcastle Thousand Families birth cohort.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that social, educational, cultural and physical factors in childhood and early adulthood may influence the chances and direction of social mobility, the movement of an individual between social classes over his/her life-course. This study examined the association of such factors with intra-generational and inter-generational social mobility within the Newcastle Thousand Families 1947 birth cohort. METHODS: Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the potential association of sex, housing conditions at age 5 years, childhood IQ, achieved education level, adult height and adverse events in early childhood with upward and downward social mobility. RESULTS: Childhood IQ and achieved education level were significantly and independently associated with upward mobility between the ages of 5 and 49-51 years. Only education was significantly associated (positively) with upward social mobility between 5 and 25 years, and only childhood IQ (again positively) with upward social mobility between 25 and 49-51 years. Childhood IQ was significantly negatively associated with downward social mobility. Adult height, childhood housing conditions, adverse events in childhood and sex were not significant determinants of upward or downward social mobility in this cohort. CONCLUSIONS: As upward social mobility has been associated with better health as well as more general benefits to society, supportive measures to improve childhood circumstances that could result in increased IQ and educational attainment may have long-term population health and wellbeing benefits.

Intra- and intergenerational social mobility in relation to height, weight and body mass index in a British national cohort.

Using a sample of 2090 father and son pairs, the extent of intra- and inter-generational social mobility (migration between social classes) was examined over a 42-year period in a British cohort in relation to height, weight and body mass index (BMI). The mean height difference between the highest and lowest social class decreased from about 4 cm in the fathers' generation to about 3 cm in the sons' generation, indicating a decline in heterogeneity in height between classes. For fathers downward intra-generational social mobility ranged between 11% and 18% while between 16% and 26% were upwardly mobile; for sons 15% were downwardly mobile and 21% upwardly mobile. On average downwardly mobile fathers were shorter by between 0.1 cm and 0.7 cm while upwardly mobile fathers were taller by, on average, 0.6 cm to 1.7 cm. For sons, the downwardly mobile were on average 0.7 cm shorter and the upwardly mobile 0.8 cm taller. For weight and BMI there were no consistent relationships with intra-generational mobility in either the fathers' or sons' generations. Inter-generationally, between 18% and 19% of sons were downwardly mobile and between 39% and 40% were upwardly mobile; the downwardly mobile were shorter by about 0.9 cm and the upwardly taller by between 0.6 cm and 1.2 cm. Sons with higher BMI were more likely to be inter-generationally downwardly mobile.

A multigenerational view of inequality.

The study of intergenerational mobility and most population research are governed by a two-generation (parent-to-offspring) view of intergenerational influence, to the neglect of the effects of grandparents and other ancestors and nonresident contemporary kin. While appropriate for some populations in some periods, this perspective may omit important sources of intergenerational continuity of family-based social inequality. Social institutions, which transcend individual lives, help support multigenerational influence, particularly at the extreme top and bottom of the social hierarchy, but to some extent in the middle as well. Multigenerational influence also works through demographic processes because families influence subsequent generations through differential fertility and survival, migration, and marriage patterns, as well as through direct transmission of socioeconomic rewards, statuses, and positions. Future research should attend more closely to multigenerational effects; to the tandem nature of demographic and socioeconomic reproduction; and to data, measures, and models that transcend co-resident nuclear families.