Disparities in Neonatal Outcomes: Past, Present, and Our Future?

Neonatal outcomes and infant mortality rates have improved significantly in the past century. However, the disparities in outcomes linked to racial and ethnic variations have persisted and actually increased. Those differences in outcomes have been acknowledged for years as care providers strive to improve care for all of our most vulnerable and youngest individuals. Trends in neonatal outcomes are summarized.

[That daily trickle of death: Infant mortality and the dawn of pediatric medicine in the province of Santiago, Chile, 1870-1913]. / Esa diaria gotera de la muerte: Mortalidad infantil y los albores de la medicina pediátrica en la provincia de Santiago, Chile, 1870-1913.

This article deals with the problem of infant mortality in Santiago, Chile, and the development of pediatric medicine during the second half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. Emphasis is placed on the specialists who contributed to organizing the knowledge and practices that structured their professional field. In order to pursue the objective and systematize this new medical field, our analysis suggests the decisive role of the establishment of the Faculty of Medicine and the appearance of coursework dedicated specifically to childhood diseases. Our research is based on various historical sources including the press, medical literature, thesis archives, and the Anuario Estadístico de la República de Chile [Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Chile]. Likewise, the inauguration of children's hospitals expresses an institutional setting where physicians position their work, put scientific treatments into practice, and most importantly, they become spaces that allow for the reduction of infant mortality.

Este artículo aborda el problema de la mortalidad infantil en la provincia de Santiago, Chile, y el desarrollo de la medicina pediátrica durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX e inicios del XX, a través de especialistas que contribuyeron a organizar los conocimientos y prácticas que estructuraron su ejercicio profesional. Para emprender este objetivo y sistematizar este nuevo campo médico, se analizan los antecedentes relativos a la formación de la Facultad de Medicina y el quiebre que representó la aparición de una asignatura dedicada a las enfermedades de la niñez. La investigación se encuentra respaldada en diversas fuentes históricas, entre ellas, la prensa escrita, bibliografía médica, memorias de titulación y el Anuario Estadístico de la República de Chile. La inauguración de los hospitales de niños expresa una institucionalidad, en la que los facultativos posicionaron su labor, pusieron en práctica los tratamientos científicos y, lo más importante, se convirtieron en espacios que permitieron la disminución de la mortalidad infantil.

The Relationship between Birth Weight Discordance and Adverse Infant Mortality among Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins in Japan, 1995-2008.

Using vital statistics in Japan (1995-2008), 154,578 live-born twin pairs (128,236 monozygotic [MZ] and 180,920 dizygotic [DZ]) were identified. The proportion of severe discordance among live-born twin births was twice as high in Japanese than Caucasian infants. There were 1858 MZ and 1620 DZ infant deaths. Computation of the relationship between infant mortality rate and birth weight discordance among the twins was performed. Discordance levels were classified into seven groups: <5%, five groups from 5-9% to 25-29%, and ≥30%.The mortality rate was significantly higher in MZ than DZ twins for discordances except at 5-9% and 10-14%. The lowest rate for MZ twins was at 5-9% (7.5 per 1000 live twins) and significantly increased from 10-14% (9.4) to ≥30% (83.4), while the lowest rate for DZ twins was at <5% (6.7), which significantly increased at 10-14% (8.0) and from 25-29% (12.1) to ≥30% (35.5). The relationship was also computed in two gestational age groups (<28 and ≥28 weeks). For births at <28 weeks, three discordances (after 20-24%) in MZ twins were associated with adverse mortality rate. For births at ≥28 weeks, the same relationship was obtained after 10-14% in MZ and after 20-24% in DZ twins. The relationship from 2002 to 2008 showed that the mortality rates significantly increased after 10-14% for both types of twins. In conclusion, five discordance levels in MZ and three levels in DZ twins were associated with adverse mortality rates.

Revisiting the effect of time of birth on neonatal, infant, and child mortality in rural Spain, 1830-1929.

OBJECTIVES: This article aims to determine whether different patterns of mortality occurred among children born during the day and the night respectively, between 1830 and 1929. METHODS: The data include the time of birth and death of 9814 individuals from 10 villages in rural Spain between 1830 and 1929, within a context of natural births at home with little medical support. These data were subjected to a comparative analysis relating to the time of birth and the age at death. RESULTS: Neonatal, infant, and child mortality was higher for children born during daytime. The day-to-night mortality pattern diverged until children were at least 5 years old. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirm that the mortality patterns differed according to the time of birth. Possibly some of these children experienced longer or problematic deliveries that, in the absence of good medical assistance, had health consequences during the following days and years of life.

Análise da saúde da criança no estado de Santa Catarina. Brasil: de 1982 a 2018 / Análisis de la salud infantil en el estado de Santa Catarina. Brasil: de 1982 a 2018 / Analysis of child health in the state of Santa Catarina. Brazil: from 1982 to 2018

RESUMO Objetivo Analisar as políticas e os programas direcionados à saúde da criança, no estado de Santa Catarina (SC), Brasil, entre 1982 e 2018, bem como suas contribuições para a redução da mortalidade infantil no estado. Método Pesquisa histórica, com abordagem qualitativa. Os dados foram coletados por meio de pesquisa documental, com busca manual e eletrônica; os documentos obtidos foram submetidos à análise de conteúdo. Resultados Apontam-se as estratégias de vigilância em saúde e atenção primária à saúde, voltadas ao público materno-infantil e neonatal, como as principais responsáveis pelo avanço da saúde da criança, em SC. Os indicadores de mortalidade infantil e cobertura vacinal, juntamente com a análise dos programas/estratégias de saúde catarinenses evidenciaram esses resultados. Conclusão e implicações para a prática o estado de SC investiu, ao longo de 36 anos, em diversas ações e programas que fomentaram a melhoria da saúde da criança, com destaque para as ações de caráter municipal. Analisando e sintetizando as informações previamente pulverizadas em documentos históricos, este trabalho contribui para a visualização e compreensão acerca das práticas governamentais voltadas à criança em SC, nas últimas décadas, facilitando a replicação de boas práticas.

RESUMEN Objetivo Analizar las políticas y programas dirigidos a la salud infantil, en el estado de Santa Catarina (SC), Brasil, entre 1982 y 2018, así como sus contribuciones a la reducción de la mortalidad infantil en el estado. Método Investigación histórica, con enfoque cualitativo. Los datos fueron recolectados mediante investigación documental, con búsqueda manual y electrónica; los documentos obtenidos fueron sometidos a análisis de contenido. Resultados Las estrategias de vigilancia de la salud y la atención primaria de salud, dirigidas al público materno infantil y neonatal se señalan como las principales responsables del avance de la salud del niño en SC. Los indicadores de mortalidad infantil y cobertura de vacunación, junto con el análisis de los programas / estrategias de salud de Santa Catarina, mostraron estos resultados. Conclusión y implicaciones para la práctica El estado de SC ha invertido, durante 36 años, en diversas acciones y programas que han promovido la mejora de la salud del niño, con énfasis en acciones de carácter municipal. Analizando y sintetizando la información previamente pulverizada en documentos históricos, este trabajo contribuye a la visualización y comprensión de las prácticas gubernamentales dirigidas a los niños en SC, en las últimas décadas, facilitando la replicación de buenas prácticas.

ABSTRACT Objective To analyze policies and programs directed to child health, in the state of Santa Catarina (SC), Brazil, between 1982 and 2018, as well as their contributions to the infant mortality reduction in the state. Method Historical research, with a qualitative approach. Data were collected through documentary research, with manual and electronic search; the documents obtained were submitted to content analysis. Results Health surveillance strategies and primary health care, aimed at the maternal-infant and neonatal public are pointed out as the main responsible for the advancement of the child's health, in SC. The indicators of infant mortality and vaccination coverage, together with the analysis of Santa Catarina's health programs / strategies, pointed these results. Conclusion and implications for practice The state of SC has invested, over 36 years, in various actions and programs that have promoted the improvement of child health, with emphasis on actions of municipal scope. By analyzing and synthesizing information previously pulverized in historical documents, this work contributes to the visualization and understanding about government practices aimed at children in SC, in the last decades, facilitating the replication of good practices.

Esa diaria gotera de la muerte: Mortalidad infantil y los albores de la medicina pediátrica en la provincia de Santiago, Chile, 1870-1913 / That daily trickle of death: Infant mortality and the dawn of pediatric medicine in the province of Santiago, Chile, 1870-1913

RESUMEN Este artículo aborda el problema de la mortalidad infantil en la provincia de Santiago, Chile, y el desarrollo de la medicina pediátrica durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX e inicios del XX, a través de especialistas que contribuyeron a organizar los conocimientos y prácticas que estructuraron su ejercicio profesional. Para emprender este objetivo y sistematizar este nuevo campo médico, se analizan los antecedentes relativos a la formación de la Facultad de Medicina y el quiebre que representó la aparición de una asignatura dedicada a las enfermedades de la niñez. La investigación se encuentra respaldada en diversas fuentes históricas, entre ellas, la prensa escrita, bibliografía médica, memorias de titulación y el Anuario Estadístico de la República de Chile. La inauguración de los hospitales de niños expresa una institucionalidad, en la que los facultativos posicionaron su labor, pusieron en práctica los tratamientos científicos y, lo más importante, se convirtieron en espacios que permitieron la disminución de la mortalidad infantil.

ABSTRACT This article deals with the problem of infant mortality in Santiago, Chile, and the development of pediatric medicine during the second half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. Emphasis is placed on the specialists who contributed to organizing the knowledge and practices that structured their professional field. In order to pursue the objective and systematize this new medical field, our analysis suggests the decisive role of the establishment of the Faculty of Medicine and the appearance of coursework dedicated specifically to childhood diseases. Our research is based on various historical sources including the press, medical literature, thesis archives, and the Anuario Estadístico de la República de Chile [Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Chile]. Likewise, the inauguration of children's hospitals expresses an institutional setting where physicians position their work, put scientific treatments into practice, and most importantly, they become spaces that allow for the reduction of infant mortality.

The mother's risk of premature death after child loss across two centuries.

While the rare occurrence of child loss is accompanied by reduced life expectancy of parents in contemporary affluent populations, its impact in developing societies with high child mortality rates is unclear. We identified all parents in Iceland born 1800-1996 and compared the mortality rates of 47,711 parents who lost a child to those of their siblings (N = 126,342) who did not. The proportion of parents who experienced child loss decreased from 61.1% of those born 1800-1880 to 5.2% of those born after 1930. Child loss was consistently associated with increased rate of maternal, but not paternal, death before the age of 50 across all parent birth cohorts; the relative increase in maternal mortality rate ranged from 35% among mothers born 1800-1930 to 64% among mothers born after 1930. The loss of a child poses a threat to the survival of young mothers, even during periods of high infant mortality rates.

The association between cold extremes and neonatal mortality in Swedish Sápmi from 1800 to 1895.

Background: Studies in which the association between temperature and neonatal mortality (deaths during the first 28 days of life) is tracked over extended periods that cover demographic, economic and epidemiological transitions are quite limited. From previous research about the demographic transition in Swedish Sápmi, we know that infant and child mortality was generally higher among the indigenous (Sami) population compared to non-indigenous populations. Objective: The aim of this study was to analyse the association between extreme temperatures and neonatal mortality among the Sami and non-Sami population in Swedish Sápmi (Lapland) during the nineteenth century. Methods: Data from the Demographic Data Base, Umeå University, were used to identify neonatal deaths. We used monthly mean temperature in Tornedalen and identified cold and warm month (5th and 95th) percentiles. Monthly death counts from extreme temperatures were modelled using negative binomial regression. We computed relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI), adjusting for time trends and seasonality. Results: Overall, the neonatal mortality rate was higher among Sami compared to non-Sami infants (62/1,000 vs 35/1,000 live births), although the differences between the two populations decreased after 1860. For the Sami population prior 1860, the results revealed a higher neonatal incidence rate during cold winter months (<-15.4°C, RR = 1.60, CI 1.14-2.23) compared to infants born during months of medium temperature. No association was found between extreme cold months and neonatal mortality for non-Sami populations. Warm months (+15.1°C) had no impact on Sami or non-Sami populations. Conclusions: This study revealed the role of environmental factors (temperature extremes) on infant health during the demographic transition where cold extremes mainly affected the Sami population. Ethnicity and living conditions contributed to differential weather vulnerability.

Learning From History About Reducing Infant Mortality: Contrasting the Centrality of Structural Interventions to Early 20th-Century Successes in the United States to Their Neglect in Current Global Initiatives.

Policy Points Current efforts to reduce infant mortality and improve infant health in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) can benefit from awareness of the history of successful early 20th-century initiatives to reduce infant mortality in high-income countries, which occurred before widespread use of vaccination and medical technologies. Improvements in sanitation, civil registration, milk purification, and institutional structures to monitor and reduce infant mortality played a crucial role in the decline in infant mortality seen in the United States in the early 1900s. The commitment to sanitation and civil registration has not been fulfilled in many LMICs. Structural investments in sanitation and water purification as well as in civil registration systems should be central, not peripheral, to the goal of infant mortality reduction in LMICs. CONTEXT: Between 1915 and 1950, the infant mortality rate (IMR) in the United States declined from 100 to fewer than 30 deaths per 1,000 live births, prior to the widespread use of medical technologies and vaccination. In 2015 the IMR in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) was 53.2 deaths per 1,000 live births, which is comparable to the United States in 1935 when IMR was 55.7 deaths per 1,000 live births. We contrast the role of public health institutions and interventions for IMR reduction in past versus present efforts to reduce infant mortality in LMICs to critically examine the current evidence base for reducing infant mortality and to propose ways in which lessons from history can inform efforts to address the current burden of infant mortality. METHODS: We searched the peer-reviewed and gray literature on the causes and explanations behind the decline in infant mortality in the United States between 1850 and 1950 and in LMICs after 2000. We included historical analyses, empirical research, policy documents, and global strategies. For each key source, we assessed the factors considered by their authors to be salient in reducing infant mortality. FINDINGS: Public health programs that played a central role in the decline in infant mortality in the United States in the early 1900s emphasized large structural interventions like filtering and chlorinating water supplies, building sanitation systems, developing the birth and death registration area, pasteurizing milk, and also educating mothers on infant care and hygiene. The creation of new institutions and policies for infant health additionally provided technical expertise, mobilized resources, and engaged women's groups and public health professionals. In contrast, contemporary literature and global policy documents on reducing infant mortality in LMICs have primarily focused on interventions at the individual, household, and health facility level, and on the widespread adoption of cheap, ostensibly accessible, and simple technologies, often at the cost of leaving the structural conditions that determine child survival largely untouched. CONCLUSIONS: Current discourses on infant mortality are not informed by lessons from history. Although structural interventions were central to the decline in infant mortality in the United States, current interventions in LMICs that receive the most global endorsement do not address these structural determinants of infant mortality. Using a historical lens to examine the continued problem of infant mortality in LMICs suggests that structural interventions, especially regarding sanitation and civil registration, should again become core to a public health approach to addressing infant mortality.

Sun Smoke in Sweden: Perinatal Implications of the Laki Volcanic Eruptions, 1783-1784.

BACKGROUND: The Icelandic volcano Laki erupted from June 1783 through January 1784. It produced 122 megatons of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and acid rain and contributed to one of the coldest winters on record in Western Europe. Although uncontrollable volcanic eruptions continue, few studies have investigated their perinatal health implications. METHODS: Using the Human Mortality Database, we assessed the association between the Laki event and the secondary sex ratio, infant mortality rates, and the number of births from 1751 to 1800 with time-series models that controlled for temporal trends. RESULTS: The secondary sex ratio decreased 3% below expected levels in 1784 (95% CI = -4%, -1%). Both female and male infant mortality rates exceeded expectation in 1785, by 54% (95% CI = 25%, 83%) and 37% (-1%, 74%), respectively. We observed little change in female live births but a reduction in male live births in 1784. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the large-scale Laki volcanic eruptions of 1783-1784 resulted in adverse perinatal health outcomes in Sweden.

Cuba's Maternity Homes, 1962-2017: History, Evolution, Challenges.

Cuba's maternity homes were founded in 1962 as part of the gen-eral movement to extend health services to the whole population in the context of the post-1959 social transformations. The over-arching goal of the homes was to improve the health of pregnant women, mothers and newborns. Hence, in the beginning when there were few hospitals in Cuba's rural areas, their initial pur-pose was to increase institutional births by providing pregnant women a homelike environment closer to hospitals. There, they lived during the final weeks before delivery, where they received medical care, room and board free of charge. Over time, and with expanded access to community and hospital health facilities across Cuba, the numbers, activities, modalities and criteria for admission also changed. In particular, in addition to geographi-cal considerations, expectant mothers with defined risk factors were prioritized. For example, during the 1990s economic crisis, the maternity homes' role in healthy nutrition became paramount. The purpose of this essay is to provide a historical perspective of this process, describe the changes and results during the 55 years examined, and take a critical look at the challenges to suc-cessful implementation of this model, a mainstay at the primary healthcare level of the public health system's Maternal-Child Health Program. KEYWORDS Maternal health, maternal-child health, obstetrics, pregnancy, Cuba.

Mortalidad infantil en Santiago: representaciones y discursos, Chile, 1860-1914 / Infant mortality in Santiago: representations and discourses, Chile, 1860-1914

Resumen Se exploran las características de la mortalidad infantil en Santiago durante una fase histórica en que los indicadores demográficos alcanzaron cifras altísimas transformándose el fenómeno en un problema médico y político. Luego de comentar algunas investigaciones historiográficas sobre la temática, se demuestra cuantitativamente el comportamiento de la población infantil, recurriendo a fuentes primarias - de la medicina, la prensa y el Registro Civil - y bibliografía. Posteriormente, se describen las causas que las elites esgrimieron para explicar las muertes infantiles: materiales, morales y culturales. Las conclusiones abordan la promulgación de la ley de la infancia desvalida, los inicios de un conocimiento sobre la salud de los niños y la inauguración del Hospital Infantil.

Abstract The article explores the characteristics of infant mortality in Santiago during a historical period in which the demographic indicators reached very high figures turning the phenomenon into a medical and political issue. After commenting on historiographic data, it demonstrates the behavior of the infant population quantitatively, taking into account primary sources - from medicine, the press and civil records - and bibliography. It also exposes the motives employed by the elite to justify the children's deaths: materially, morally and culturally. The conclusion addresses the promulgation of the defenseless child law, the beginnings of knowledge on child health and the inauguration of the Child Hospital.

Revising Infant Mortality Rates for the Early Twentieth Century United States.

Accurate vital statistics are required to understand the evolution of racial disparities in infant health and the causes of rapid secular decline in infant mortality during the early twentieth century. Unfortunately, U.S. infant mortality rates prior to 1950 suffer from an upward bias stemming from a severe underregistration of births. At one extreme, African American births in southern states went unregistered at the rate of 15 % to 25 %. In this study, we construct improved estimates of births and infant mortality in the United States for 1915-1940 using recently released complete count decennial census microdata combined with the counts of infant deaths from published sources. We check the veracity of our estimates with a major birth registration study completed in conjunction with the 1940 decennial census and find that the largest adjustments occur in states with less-complete birth registration systems. An additional advantage of our census-based estimation method is the extension backward of the birth and infant mortality series for years prior to published estimates of registered births, enabling previously impossible comparisons and estimations. Finally, we show that underregistration can bias effect estimates even in a panel setting with specifications that include location fixed effects and place-specific linear time trends.

The Dust Bowl in the US: An Analysis Based on Current Environmental and Clinical Studies.

The Dust Bowl occurred in the Central Plains states in the United States between 1930 and 1940. Prolonged drought, intense recurrent dust storms and economic depression had profound effects on human welfare. The causes included increased farming on marginal land, poor land management, and prolonged drought. There was a significant increase in the number of cases of measles, increased hospitalization for respiratory disorders and increased infant and overall mortality in Kansas during the Dust Bowl. Recent scientific studies have demonstrated that dust transmits measles virus, influenza virus and Coccidioides immitis, and that mortality in the United States increases following dust storms with 2-3-day lag periods. Advances in technology have provided information about the composition of dust and the transfer of microbial pathogens in dust and provided the framework for reducing the economic and health consequences of the next prolonged drought in the United States.

A Brief History of Milk Hygiene and Its Impact on Infant Mortality from 1875 to 1925 and Implications for Today: A Review.

The objective of this review is to provide an integrated historical account of the complex, often convoluted events impacting milk hygiene and its resultant effect on infant mortality from 1875 to 1925. Heat pasteurization of cow's milk is necessary for rendering this important nutrient source safe for humans-particularly infants. Developed by Louis Pasteur in 1864, pasteurization evolved from the commercially important parboiling of wine and beer when the Industrial Revolution was effecting rapid societal change in Western societies. In European and American societies of the early and mid-19th century, infant mortality rates were 30- to 60-fold higher than the current rates of five or six deaths per 1,000 live births per year. With proof of the germ theory of disease came convincing evidence of the role of microbes in the transmission of infections, which led to the discovery that microbial pathogens were transmissible via milk. Diseases caused by milkborne pathogens include human and bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis, streptococcal infections, diphtheria, and "summer diarrhea." With pasteurization of milk, infectious diseases with their high infant mortality rates decreased by only half by the early 20th century, despite concurrent medical and dairy hygiene advances. To further mitigate unacceptably high infant mortality rates, social support providers-including public health nurses and midwives-encouraged breastfeeding, especially among socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers. Improvements in pulsating vacuum milking machines also favorably impacted food safety by providing a clean, enclosed environment. Currently, bottle feeding still competes with breastfeeding as the preferred method, and the sale of raw, unpasteurized milk remains a contentious issue. Informed and responsible food safety professionals, physicians, and public health officials currently view breastfeeding as the preferred feeding method and milk pasteurization as the safer and more prudent alternative.

[Infant mortality in Santiago: representations and discourses, Chile, 1860-1914]. / Mortalidad infantil en Santiago: representaciones y discursos, Chile, 1860-1914.

The article explores the characteristics of infant mortality in Santiago during a historical period in which the demographic indicators reached very high figures turning the phenomenon into a medical and political issue. After commenting on historiographic data, it demonstrates the behavior of the infant population quantitatively, taking into account primary sources - from medicine, the press and civil records - and bibliography. It also exposes the motives employed by the elite to justify the children's deaths: materially, morally and culturally. The conclusion addresses the promulgation of the defenseless child law, the beginnings of knowledge on child health and the inauguration of the Child Hospital.

Se exploran las características de la mortalidad infantil en Santiago durante una fase histórica en que los indicadores demográficos alcanzaron cifras altísimas transformándose el fenómeno en un problema médico y político. Luego de comentar algunas investigaciones historiográficas sobre la temática, se demuestra cuantitativamente el comportamiento de la población infantil, recurriendo a fuentes primarias ­ de la medicina, la prensa y el Registro Civil ­ y bibliografía. Posteriormente, se describen las causas que las elites esgrimieron para explicar las muertes infantiles: materiales, morales y culturales. Las conclusiones abordan la promulgación de la ley de la infancia desvalida, los inicios de un conocimiento sobre la salud de los niños y la inauguración del Hospital Infantil.

Neonatal Mortality at the University Hospital of the West Indies Over Six Decades: Trends and Causes / Mortalidad Neonatal en el Hospital Universitario de West Indies Durante Seis Décadas: Tendencias y Causas

ABSTRACT Aim: To describe the pattern of neonatal mortality at the University Hospital of the West Indies (UHWI) over the past six decades. Methods: Data from previously published studies on neonatal mortality at the UHWI, monthly perinatal statistics (1987, 1996) and the annual perinatal statistics for the UHWI (2005-2010, 2014, 2015) were reviewed to detect trends in neonatal mortality at the UHWI. Descriptive analyses were performed. Results: There has been a decrease in the neonatal mortality from 21.9/1000 live births during the period 1953-1962 to 14.7/1000 live births in 2015. The percentage of total live births represented by neonates weighing between 1001 and 1500 g has doubled between 1976-2015 and tripled for neonates ≤ 1000 g. Neonates ≤ 1500 g accounted for 64% of overall mortality although they represented less than 5% of live births and neonates ≤ 1000 g accounted for 46% of overall mortality although they represented less than 2% of live births. While the contribution of intrapartum anoxia/perinatal asphyxia to mortality has decreased, the contribution of prematurity and the complication of hyaline membrane disease/respiratory distress syndrome HMD/(RDS) has steadily increased across the decades. Conclusion: There has been a decrease in the neonatal mortality rate (NMR) over the past six decades but further intervention is needed to achieve the "Every Newborn Action Plan" goal of less than ten neonatal deaths per thousand live births at the UHWI.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Describir el patrón de mortalidad neonatal en el Hospital Universitario de West Indies (UHWI) en las últimas seis décadas. Métodos: Los datos de estudios publicados previamente sobre mortalidad en el UHWI, las estadísticas perinatales mensuales (1987, 1996) y las estadísticas perinatales anuales de UHWI (2005-2010, 2014, 2015) fueron revisados para detectar las tendencias en la mortalidad neonatal en el UHWI. Se realizaron análisis descriptivos. Resultados: Se ha producido una disminución en la mortalidad neonatal de 21.9/1000 nacidos vivos durante el período 1953-1962 a 14.7/1000 nacidos vivos en 2015. El porciento del total de nacidos vivos representado por neonatos que pesan entre 1001 y 1500 g se ha duplicado entre 1976-2015 y triplicado en los neonatos ≤ 1000 g. Los neonatos ≤ 1500 g representaron el 64% de la mortalidad general, aunque representaron menos del 5% de los nacidos vivos; y los neonatos ≤ 1000 g representaron el 46% de la mortalidad general, aunque representaron menos del 2% de los nacidos vivos. Si bien la contribución de la anoxia intraparto/asfixia perinatal a la mortalidad ha disminuido, la contribución de la prematuridad y la complicación de la enfermedad de la membrana hialina/síndrome de dificultad respiratoria (HMD/(SDR) ha aumentado constantemente a través de las décadas. Conclusión: Se ha producido una disminución de la tasa de mortalidad neonatal (TMN) en las últimas seis décadas, pero se necesita más intervención para lograr el objetivo de desarrollo sostenible de menos de diez muertes neonatales por cada mil nacidos vivos en UHWI.

Stable C and N isotope analysis of hair suggest undernourishment as a factor in the death of a mummified girl from late 19th century San Francisco, CA.

The chance discovery of a 1.5-3.5 years old mummified girl presents a unique opportunity to further our understanding of health and disease among children in 19th Century San Francisco. This study focuses on carbon and nitrogen stable isotope signatures in serial samples of hair that cover the last 14 months of her life. Results suggest an initial omnivorous diet with little input from marine resources or C4 plants. Around six months before death δ15N starts a steady increase, with a noticeable acceleration just two months before she died. The magnitude of δ15N change, +1.5‰ in total, is consistent with severe undernourishment or starvation. Cemetery records from this time period in San Francisco indicate high rates of infant and child mortality, mainly due to bacterial-borne infectious diseases, about two orders of magnitude higher than today. Taken together, we hypothesize that the girl died after a prolonged battle with such an illness. Results highlight the tremendous impacts that modern sanitation and medicine have had since the 1800s on human health and lifespan in the United States.