[Ice Swimming]. / Eisschwimmen.

Ice Swimming Abstract: Just a few years ago, no one could imagine that ice swimming could evolve into a competitive sport. In the past, people swimming in ice-cold water were called madmen and, at best, were studied as scientific objects. Today regular competitions in ice swimming over different distances (ice mile, ice km, and shorter distances such as 50m, 100m, and 200m), and different disciplines are organized (freestyle, breaststroke, backstroke, butterfly). National championships, as well as continental and world championships, are also held, with new records set regularly. In this overview, we summarize the historical development of ice swimming up to a competitive sport and explore the risks in this nascent sports discipline.

Constituent Year Effect in Masters Sports: An Empirical View on the Historical Development in US Masters Swimming.

A participation-related constituent year effect, has been found to exist in masters sports in that relatively younger masters athletes (i.e., those in the first or second year of a 5-year age category) participate in competitions significantly more often than relatively older masters athletes (i.e., those in the fourth or fifth year of a 5-year age category). The main purpose of this study was to examine if the participation-related constituent year effect in US masters swimming always existed or if it has developed over time at different historical time periods. Using archived data, participation in the US Masters national short course swimming championships at each of the historical time periods in years 1972, 1982, 1992, 2002, 2012 and 2016 were examined as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category and across gender and age. The results indicated the existence of a participation-related constituent year effect for each of the six time periods. In particular, a participation-related constituent year effect seemed to have existed from the inception of organized masters swimming competitions in the US but has developed more strongly over the years especially for males and older-aged masters swimmers. Generally, the tendency to participate at National swimming competitions during the first year of an age category was significantly more pronounced, whereas the tendency of participating during the fifth year of an age category was lower. Findings suggest that the 5-year age categories may not provide an equal competitive opportunity especially for relatively older athletes as for those who are relatively younger, but may encourage more strategic periodized training and participation.

Relações de gênero no esporte: "o belo sexo" na competição de natação em mar aberto - travessia Mar Grande-Salvador, Bahia, Brasil / Gender relations in sports: the "beautiful sex" in the Mar Grande-Salvador open sea swimming competition in Bahia, Brazil / Relaciones de género en el deporte: el "belo sexo" en la competición de natación en mar abierto - travessia Mar Grande Salvador, Bahia, Brasil

O artigo objetiva discutira educação de mulheres no esporte, com destaque para as representações e papéis sociais que lhes são tradicionalmente concedidos, a partir da participação na Travessia Mar Grande-Salvador, Bahia, Brasil, prova de natação em mar aberto na Baía de Todos os Santos. Pesquisa histórica, que privilegia a História Oral temática e fontes documentais. A análise de conteúdo nos permitiu interpretar os sentidos produzidos. Dos resultados encontrados apontamos que desde 1956 (quando se inicia essa competição esportiva) até os dias atuais as participantes são mulheres da elite soteropolitana, escolarizadas. Apesar dos avanços, as resistências à prática esportiva em mar aberto permanecem. Concluímos que a participação das mulheres nessa prova contribuiu e contribui para romper velhos padrões, a exemplo da educação que sugere papéis diferenciados e submissos para as mulheres, mudando lógicas de dominação e abrindo novos caminhos..

The article aims to discuss women's education in sports, focusing on social representations and roles traditionally ascribed to them, starting from the participation in the Mar Grande-Salvador Crossing, in Bahia, Brazil ­ an open sea swimming competition in the Todos os Santos Bay. This is a historical research focused on thematic oral history and documentary sources. Content analysis allowed us to interpret meanings. The results found include the fact that participants were educated women from Salvador's elite since 1956 (when that competition started). Despite the advances, resistance remains to open sea swimming. We conclude that women's participation in that competition contributed to break old patterns such as education that suggests distinct and submissive roles for women, changing the logic of domination and opening up new paths.

El artículo objetiva discutir la educación de mujeres en el deporte, con destaque para las representaciones y papeles sociales que le son tradicionalmente concedidos, a partir de la participación en la Travessia Mar Grande-Salvador, Bahia, Brasil, prueba de natación en mar abierto en la Bahía de Todos los Santos. Investigación histórica, que privilegia la historia oral temática y fuentes documentales. El análisis de contenido nos permitió interpretar los sentidos producidos. De los resultados encontrados apuntamos que desde 1956 (cuando se inicia esta competición deportiva) hasta los días actuales las participantes son mujeres de la elite soteropolita, escolarizadas. A pesar de los avances, las resistencias a la práctica deportiva en mar abierto, permanecen. Concluimos que la participación de las mujeres en esta prueba contribuyó a romper viejos patrones, a ejemplo de la educación que sugiere papeles diferenciados y sumisos para las mujeres, cambiando lógicas de dominación, y apertura de nuevos caminos.

[Swimming, physical activity and health: a historical perspective]. / Nuoto, attività fisica e salute: una prospettiva storica.

Swimming, which is the coordinated and harmonic movement of the human body inside a liquid medium by means of the combined action of the superior and inferior limbs, is a physical activity which is diffused throughout the whole world and it is practiced by healthy and non-healthy subjects. Swimming is one of the physical activities with less contraindications and, with limited exceptions, can be suggested to individuals of both sexes and of every age range, including the most advanced. Swimming requires energy both for the floating process and for the anterograde progression, with a different and variable osteo-arthro-muscular involvement according to the different styles. The energetic requirement is about four times that for running, with an overall efficiency inferior to 10%; the energetic cost of swimming in the female subject is approximately two thirds of that in the male subject. The moderate aerobic training typical of swimming is useful for diabetic and hypertensive individuals, for people with painful conditions of rachis, as also for obese and orthopaedic patients. Motor activity inside the water reduces the risk of muscular-tendinous lesions and, without loading the joints in excess, requires the harmonic activation of the whole human musculature. Swimming is an activity requiring multiple abilities, ranging from a sense of equilibrium to that of rhythm, from reaction speed to velocity, from joint mobility to resistance. The structured interest for swimming in the perspective of human health from the beginning of civilization, as described in this contribution, underlines the relevance attributed to this activity in the course of human history.

Prevention of childhood drowning on a Greek island in the 19th century: literal testimonies by two native writers.

BACKGROUND: To present literal texts of two native writers about drowning during childhood, along witha successful simple preventive measure implemented by the community of a small Greek island. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Review of the older Greek literal production as well as of the contemporary literatureon childhood drowning and related preventive measures. RESULTS: Alexander Papadiamandis (1851-1911) from the island of Skiathos is a writer, who described,with intellectual language, the microcosm of his place of birth, which he always remembered with nostalgia.Alexander Moraitidis (1850-1929), his cousin, also from the same island, used a different style to describelife events in the small society. Both refer to tragic intentional and unintentional drowning events in wellsand the sea, which took place in their times or before and survived as local legends in their narrations.Both describe effective initiatives undertaken by families themselves to prevent childhood drowning byhiring, during the summer months, a guardian with a specific duty to closely supervise the children andenforce guidelines for swimming in the sea. Papadiamantis goes one step further to describe the dismalconsequences when the rules were not respected. CONCLUSIONS: The literal testimonies of two Greek islander writers present the range of childhood drowningoccurring on the island and a primitive yet effective community initiative for accident and drowningprevention pertaining to better supervision by an ad hoc employed guardian; this sets the example of thesocial responsibility ethos on the part of local communities to safeguard children from drowning that couldserve as a good practice even in modern times.

The legacy of fear: is fear impacting fatal and non-fatal drowning of African American children?

African American children's rates for fatal and non-fatal drowning events are alarmingly elevated, with some age groups having three times the rate as compared to White peers. Adequate swimming skills are considered a protective agent toward the prevention of drowning, but marginalized youth report limited swimming ability. This research examined minority children's and parents/caregivers' fear of drowning as a possible variable associated with limited swimming ability. Results confirmed that there were significant racial differences concerning the fear of drowning, and adolescent African American females were notably more likely to fear drowning while swimming than any other group. The "fear of drowning" responses by parents/ caregivers of minority children were also significantly different from their White counterparts.

Ignoring taboos: Maria Lenk, Latin American inspirationalist.

Maria Lenk is widely recognized as an exceptional athlete who participated in women's sport from around 1930 until 1950. In 1932, at the age of seventeen, she was the first woman to be included in a Latin American delegation to the Olympic Games. As a swimmer, she still sets world records at the age of eighty-six. This super-champion's sporting achievements and her persistent dedication to the advancement of sport still impress and surprise todays professional swimmers and researchers. Contextualised in the male-dominated society of Brazil during the first half of the twentieth century, this chapter traces the achievement, and rise to international fame, of Maria Lenk. It examines the factors that enabled her to emerge not only as an important figure in sport but also as an icon of female emancipation in Brazilian and Latin American society. The focus is on Lenk's influence on the issues which affected the development of women's sport in Latin America. It also highlights the significance of Lenk's contribution to the changing place of women in Brazilian and South American society.

[Infant swimming programs in Norway during the last 10 years]. / Babysvlmming i Norge i ti år.

About 15,000 babies have participated in infant aquatic programmes in Norway since swimming classes for infants and toddlers started in 1979. This article reviews the historical development of infant swimming, describes how it is practised today, and discusses physiological reactions and positive effects on the psychomotoric development of children, as well as potential risks.