Right Place, Right Time: An Informal Memoir.

My career spanned the revolution in understanding of the large-scale fluid ocean, as modern electronics produced vast new capabilities. I started in the days of almost purely mechanical instruments operated by seagoing scientists, ones not so different from those used more than a century earlier. Elegant theories existed of hypothetical steady-state oceans. Today, we understand that the ocean is a highly turbulent fluid, interacting over global scales, and it is now studied by large teams using spacecraft and diverse sets of self-contained in situ instrumentation. Mine was an accidental career: I was lucky to be in the right place at the right time.

A Biogeochemical Oceanographer at Sea: My Life with Nitrogen and a Nod to Silica.

My evolution from electrical engineering student to limnologist and then to oceanographer was a consequence of generous mentoring, which led to my use of the 15N tracer technique to measure nitrogen fixation in aquatic systems. The concept of new and regenerated production arose when I applied this method to measure nitrate and ammonium uptake in marine ecosystems. I then showed that enzyme kinetics could be applied to algal nitrogen uptake and used a silicate pump to explain silicate limitation of diatoms in coastal and equatorial upwelling systems. These concepts are now recognized as modern nutrient paradigms in biogeochemical oceanography. My interest in nutrients required field studies and led to my passion for the study of upwelling ecosystems and the establishment of two major international programs, with numerous advisors, collaborators, and students helping along the way.

An Amphibious Being: How Maritime Surveying Reshaped Darwin's Approach to Natural History.

This essay argues that Charles Darwin's distinctive approach to studying distribution and diversity was shaped by his face-to-face interactions with maritime surveyors during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle (1831-1836). Introducing their hydrographic surveying methods into natural history enabled him to compare fossil and living marine organisms, to compare sedimentary rocks to present-day marine sediments, and to compare landscapes to submarine topology, thereby realizing Charles Lyell's fanciful ambition for a superior form of geology that might be practiced by an "amphibious being." Darwin's theories of continental uplift, coral reef formation, and the origin of species all depended on his amphibious natural history. This essay contributes to our understanding of theorizing in nineteenth-century natural history by illustrating that specific techniques of observing and collecting could themselves help to generate a particular theoretical orientation and, indeed, that such practical experiences were a more proximate source of Darwin's "Humboldtian" interest in distribution and diversity than Alexander von Humboldt's writings themselves. Darwin's debt to the hydrographers became obscured in two ways: through the "funneling" of credit produced by single-authorship publication in natural history and the "telescoping" of memory by which Darwin's new theories made him recall his former researches as though he had originally undertaken them for the very purpose of producing the later theory.

Global Ocean Integrals and Means, with Trend Implications.

Understanding the ocean requires determining and explaining global integrals and equivalent average values of temperature (heat), salinity (freshwater and salt content), sea level, energy, and other properties. Attempts to determine means, integrals, and climatologies have been hindered by thinly and poorly distributed historical observations in a system in which both signals and background noise are spatially very inhomogeneous, leading to potentially large temporal bias errors that must be corrected at the 1% level or better. With the exception of the upper ocean in the current altimetric-Argo era, no clear documentation exists on the best methods for estimating means and their changes for quantities such as heat and freshwater at the levels required for anthropogenic signals. Underestimates of trends are as likely as overestimates; for example, recent inferences that multidecadal oceanic heat uptake has been greatly underestimated are plausible. For new or augmented observing systems, calculating the accuracies and precisions of global, multidecadal sampling densities for the full water column is necessary to avoid the irrecoverable loss of scientifically essential information.

Building Networks for Science: Conflict and Cooperation in Nineteenth-Century Global Marine Studies.

In the nineteenth-century globalizing world of colonial expansion and maritime trade, systematic study of ocean currents and winds became of increased concern in various seafaring nations. Both naval officers and university professors engaged in maritime meteorological and hydrographic research. In order to attract the attention of the state and obtain support for establishment of national scientific institutes, university professors teamed up with naval officers in building networks for maritime data collection, thus connecting practical utility to academic credentials. This paper looks into the combined efforts of the U.S. Navy lieutenant M. F. Maury and the Dutch naval officer M. H. Jansen in organizing the 1853 International Maritime Conference in Brussels, which aimed to develop a worldwide system of uniform atmospheric and marine observations. Such efforts, however, amounted to walking a tightrope between mutual interests and personal rivalries. The alliance between elite scientists and naval officers proved to be only temporary. Once the meteorological institutes were established, academically trained meteorologists gradually marginalized the role of naval officers in scientific research at the institutes, thereby establishing and securing their authority in maritime science.

Reflections on my career as a marine physical chemist, and tales of the deep.

This is a personal review of how one can apply the principles of physical chemistry to study the ocean and other natural waters. Physical chemistry is the study of chemical thermodynamics, kinetics, and molecular structure. My long-term interest in the chemistry of seawater is an extension of my early work on water and the interactions that occur in aqueous electrolyte solutions, which I began as part of my PhD research on the thermodynamics of organic acids in water. Over the years, I have attempted to apply the tools of physical chemistry to elucidate the structures of seawater, brines, lakes, and rivers. I have developed and continue to work on ionic interaction models that can be applied to all natural waters. Here, I reflect on how my students, postdocs, research assistants, and scientific colleagues have influenced my life, my career, and the field of marine physical chemistry. My hope was and is to use these tools to understand the molecular structures of natural waters.

Between seas and continents: aspects of the scientific career of Hermann von Ihering, 1850-1930.

This paper covers some periods in Hermann von Ihering's scientific trajectory: his training in zoology in Germany and Naples, his international activities based in Brazil, and his return to Germany. It deals with aspects of the formulation of his theories on land bridges. It focuses on the network of contacts he maintained with German émigrés like himself, and primarily with Florentino Ameghino, which allowed him to interact in international scientific circles. It mentions excerpts of his letters and his publications in the periods when he began corresponding with Ameghino (1890), when he travelled to Europe in search of support for his theories (1907), and when he published his book on the history of the Atlantic Ocean (1927).

The sea as science: ocean research institutions and strategies in Portugal in the twentieth century (from the First Republic to democracy).

Historical perspective has revealed the many aspects of Portugal's interest in the sea, evident in a series of initiatives and entities throughout the twentieth century. From the beginning of the century until the 1974 Revolution, the genesis of organizations devoted to the scientific study of the sea is analyzed, observing their specific missions in the context of the formulation of science policy, and more specifically "ocean policies." The Portuguese valued knowledge of the sea due to their maritime vocation, coastal life and geographic position. Traversing different historical and political contexts and development cycles, the assumptions and political implications that accentuate the strategic dimension of science policy, visible in the geopolitical affirmation of oceanography, are studied.

[Oceanography and King Dom Carlos I's collection of iconography]. / A prática oceanográfica e a coleção iconográfica do rei dom Carlos I.

After the Challenger expedition (1872-1878), other nations started to show interest in oceanographic research and organizing their own expeditions. As of 1885, Prince Albert I of Monaco conducted oceanographic campaigns with the collaboration of some of the best marine biologists and physical oceanographers of the day, inventing new techniques and instruments for the oceanographic work. Prince Albert's scientific activity certainly helped kindle the interest of his friend, Dom Carlos I, king of Portugal, in the study of the oceans and marine life. Both shared the need to use photography to document their studies. This article analyzes the role of scientific photography in oceanography, especially in the expeditions organized by the Portuguese monarch.

[The Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo: a chapter in the emergence and firm establishment of the oceanographic sciences in Brazil, 1946-1969]. / O Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo: um capítulo do processo de emergência e consolidação das ciências oceanográficas no Brasil, 1946-1969.

Historians of science have yet to study the process by which the oceanographic sciences emerged and became firmly established in Brazil. The main goal of this article is to offer a preliminary analysis of this process by focusing on the contribution of the Instituto Paulista de Oceanografia (Paulista Institute of Oceanography), Brazil's first institution for oceanographic research; it was founded in 1946 and became part of the University of São Paulo in 1951, at which time it was renamed the Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo (Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo). The analysis centers on the role of three scientists who were on the facility's early research staff: Wladimir Besnard, Ingvar Emilsson, and Marta Vannucci.

[The astrolabe, the sea and the Empire]. / O astrolábio, o mar e o Império.

Based on certain texts written by Portugal's cosmographers of the kingdom between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, we bring to light the technical and scientific foundations for the European maritime expansion, highlighting the relationships between them and the making and use of the mathematical instruments used in ocean navigation. Our objective is not just to underline the scientific aspects of the artefacts used for these measurements, but also to ascertain how science and knowledge acquired a practical, strategic and symbolic meaning within the context of Portugal's expansion overseas.

O Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo: um capítulo do processo de emergência e consolidação das ciências oceanográficas no Brasil, 1946-1969 / The Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo: a chapter in the emergence and firm establishment of the oceanographic sciences in Brazil, 1946-1969

Os historiadores das ciências ainda não se preocuparam em estudar o processo de emergência e consolidação das ciências oceanográficas no Brasil. O objetivo deste artigo é analisar esse processo. Para tal foi escolhida a contribuição do Instituto Paulista de Oceanografia, primeira instituição de pesquisa oceanográfica nacional, criada em 1946, que, ao ser incorporado à Universidade de São Paulo em 1951, passou a ser Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo. A análise está centrada na atuação de três cientistas que integraram o quadro inicial de pesquisadores da instituição: Wladimir Besnard, Ingvar Emilsson e Marta Vannucci.

Historians of science have yet to study the process by which the oceanographic sciences emerged and became firmly established in Brazil. The main goal of this article is to offer a preliminary analysis of this process by focusing on the contribution of the Instituto Paulista de Oceanografia (Paulista Institute of Oceanography), Brazil’s first institution for oceanographic research; it was founded in 1946 and became part of the University of São Paulo in 1951, at which time it was renamed the Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo (Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo). The analysis centers on the role of three scientists who were on the facility’s early research staff: Wladimir Besnard, Ingvar Emilsson, and Marta Vannucci.

A prática oceanográfica e a coleção iconográfica do rei dom Carlos I / Oceanography and King Dom Carlos I’ s collection of iconography

Após a expedição do Challenger (1872-1878), outras nações começaram a interessar-se pela pesquisa oceanográfica e a organizar suas próprias expedições. Desde 1885 que o príncipe Albert I de Mónaco realizava campanhas oceanográficas, com a colaboração de alguns dos melhores cientistas em biologia marinha e em oceanografia física, inventando técnicas e instrumentos para a realização dos trabalhos oceanográficos. A atividade científica do príncipe Albert certamente contribuiu para estimular o interesse do seu amigo, o rei dom Carlos I de Portugal, pelo estudo dos oceanos e da vida marinha. Ambos compartilhavam a necessidade de usar a fotografia para documentar suas pesquisas. Este artigo analisa o papel da fotografia científica na ciência oceanográfica, particularmente nas expedições realizadas pelo monarca português.

After the Challenger expedition (1872-1878), other nations started to show interest in oceanographic research and organizing their own expeditions. As of 1885, Prince Albert I of Monaco conducted oceanographic campaigns with the collaboration of some of the best marine biologists and physical oceanographers of the day, inventing new techniques and instruments for the oceanographic work. Prince Albert’s scientific activity certainly helped kindle the interest of his friend, Dom Carlos I, king of Portugal, in the study of the oceans and marine life. Both shared the need to use photography to document their studies. This article analyzes the role of scientific photography in oceanography, especially in the expeditions organized by the Portuguese monarch.

O astrolábio, o mar e o Império / The astrolabe, the sea and the Empire

A partir de alguns textos escritos pelos cosmógrafos do Reino, entre os séculos XVI e XVIII, em Portugal, pretendemos evidenciar as bases técnicas e científicas que possibilitaram a expansão marítima europeia destacando as relações entre elas e a construção e o uso dos instrumentos matemáticos utilizados na navegação oceânica. Nosso objetivo, além de sublinhar os conteúdos científicos relacionados aos artefatos utilizados para as medições, é também verificar como a ciência e o conhecimento adquirem significado prático, estratégico e simbólico no contexto da expansão ultramarina de Portugal.

Based on certain texts written by Portugal’s cosmographers of the kingdom between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, we bring to light the technical and scientific foundations for the European maritime expansion, highlighting the relationships between them and the making and use of the mathematical instruments used in ocean navigation. Our objective is not just to underline the scientific aspects of the artefacts used for these measurements, but also to ascertain how science and knowledge acquired a practical, strategic and symbolic meaning within the context of Portugal’s expansion overseas.

Entre mares e continentes: aspectos da trajetória científica de Hermann von Ihering, 1850-1930 / Between seas and continents: aspects of the scientific career of Hermann von Ihering, 1850-1930

Este artigo considera momentos da trajetória científica de Hermann von Ihering: sua formação em zoologia em instituições alemãs e em Nápoles, sua atuação internacional a partir do Brasil e retorno à Alemanha. Aborda aspectos da elaboração de suas teorias sobre pontes continentais. Destaca as redes de sociabilidade construídas prioritariamente com Florentino Ameghino e com emigrantes alemães como ele, que lhe permitiram interagir nos círculos científicos internacionais. Menciona fragmentos de suas cartas e de suas publicações nos períodos em que inicia a correspondência com Ameghino (1890); viaja à Europa em busca de apoio para suas teorias (1907); e publica um livro sobre a história do oceano Atlântico (1927).

This paper covers some periods in Hermann von Ihering’s scientific trajectory: his training in zoology in Germany and Naples, his international activities based in Brazil, and his return to Germany. It deals with aspects of the formulation of his theories on land bridges. It focuses on the network of contacts he maintained with German émigrés like himself, and primarily with Florentino Ameghino, which allowed him to interact in international scientific circles. It mentions excerpts of his letters and his publications in the periods when he began corresponding with Ameghino (1890), when he travelled to Europe in search of support for his theories (1907), and when he published his book on the history of the Atlantic Ocean (1927).

O mar como ciência: instituições e estratégias da investigação sobre o mar em Portugal no século XX (da Primeira República à democracia) / The sea as science: ocean research institutions and strategies in Portugal in the twentieth century (from the First Republic to democracy)

A perspectiva histórica revelou o interesse português pelo mar numa série de iniciativas e entidades ao longo do século XX. Desde o início do século à Revolução de 1974, estuda-se a génese de organismos vocacionados para a investigação científica do mar, observando suas missões específicas no contexto da formulação de políticas científicas, concretamente na definição de “políticas do mar”. A vocação marítima portuguesa, a realidade costeira e a posição geográfica estimulam a valorização do conhecimento sobre o mar. Percorrendo diferentes conjunturas histórico-políticas e ciclos de desenvolvimento, captam-se pressupostos e implicações políticas que acentuam a dimensão estratégica da política científica, visível na afirmação geopolítica das questões do mar agregadas sob a oceanografia.

Historical perspective has revealed the many aspects of Portugal’s interest in the sea, evident in a series of initiatives and entities throughout the twentieth century. From the beginning of the century until the 1974 Revolution, the genesis of organizations devoted to the scientific study of the sea is analyzed, observing their specific missions in the context of the formulation of science policy, and more specifically “ocean policies.” The Portuguese valued knowledge of the sea due to their maritime vocation, coastal life and geographic position. Traversing different historical and political contexts and development cycles, the assumptions and political implications that accentuate the strategic dimension of science policy, visible in the geopolitical affirmation of oceanography, are studied.

The spaces in between: science, ocean, empire.

Historians of science have richly documented the interconnections between science and empire in the nineteenth century. These studies primarily begin with Britain, Europe, or the United States at the center and have focused almost entirely on lands far off in the periphery--India or Australia, for instance. The spaces in between have received scant attention. Because use of the ocean in this period was infused with the doctrine of the freedom of the seas, the ocean was constructed as a space amenable to control by any nation that could master its surface and use its resources effectively. Oceans transformed in the mid-nineteenth century from highway to destination, becoming--among other things--the focus of sustained scientific interest for the first time in history. Use of the sea rested on reliable knowledge of the ocean. Particularly significant were the graphical representations of knowledge that could be passed from scientists to publishers to captains or other agents of empire. This process also motivated early government patronage of science and crystallized scientists' rising authority in society. The advance of science, the creation of empire, and the construction of the ocean were mutually sustaining.