C-type natriuretic peptide is a pivotal regulator of metabolic homeostasis.

Thermogenesis and adipogenesis are tightly regulated mechanisms that maintain lipid homeostasis and energy balance; dysfunction of these critical processes underpins obesity and contributes to cardiometabolic disease. C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) fulfills a multimodal protective role in the cardiovascular system governing local blood flow, angiogenesis, cardiac function, and immune cell reactivity. Herein, we investigated a parallel, preservative function for CNP in coordinating metabolic homeostasis. Global inducible CNP knockout mice exhibited reduced body weight, higher temperature, lower adiposity, and greater energy expenditure in vivo. This thermogenic phenotype was associated with increased expression of uncoupling protein-1 and preferential lipid utilization by mitochondria, a switch corroborated by a corresponding diminution of insulin secretion and glucose clearance. Complementary studies in isolated murine and human adipocytes revealed that CNP exerts these metabolic regulatory actions by inhibiting sympathetic thermogenic programming via Gi-coupled natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR)-C and reducing peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α expression, while concomitantly driving adipogenesis via NPR-B/protein kinase-G. Finally, we identified an association between CNP/NPR-C expression and obesity in patient samples. These findings establish a pivotal physiological role for CNP as a metabolic switch to balance energy homeostasis. Pharmacological targeting of these receptors may offer therapeutic utility in the metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular disorders.

C-Type Natriuretic Peptide Ameliorates Vascular Injury and Improves Neurological Outcomes in Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury in Mice.

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) is an important vascular regulator that is present in the brain. Our previous study demonstrated the innate neuroprotectant role of CNP in the neonatal brain after hypoxic-ischemic (HI) insults. In this study, we further explored the role of CNP in cerebrovascular pathology using both in vivo and in vitro models. In a neonatal mouse HI brain injury model, we found that intracerebroventricular administration of recombinant CNP dose-dependently reduces brain infarct size. CNP significantly decreases brain edema and immunoglobulin G (IgG) extravasation into the brain tissue, suggesting a vasculoprotective effect of CNP. Moreover, in primary brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), CNP dose-dependently protects BMEC survival and monolayer integrity against oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). The vasculoprotective effect of CNP is mediated by its innate receptors NPR2 and NPR3, in that inhibition of either NPR2 or NPR3 counteracts the protective effect of CNP on IgG leakage after HI insult and BMEC survival under OGD. Of importance, CNP significantly ameliorates brain atrophy and improves neurological deficits after HI insults. Altogether, the present study indicates that recombinant CNP exerts vascular protection in neonatal HI brain injury via its innate receptors, suggesting a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of neonatal HI brain injury.

Deficiency of Natriuretic Peptide Receptor 2 Promotes Bicuspid Aortic Valves, Aortic Valve Disease, Left Ventricular Dysfunction, and Ascending Aortic Dilatations in Mice.

RATIONALE: Aortic valve disease is a cell-mediated process without effective pharmacotherapy. CNP (C-type natriuretic peptide) inhibits myofibrogenesis and osteogenesis of cultured valve interstitial cells and is downregulated in stenotic aortic valves. However, it is unknown whether CNP signaling regulates aortic valve health in vivo. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to determine whether a deficient CNP signaling axis in mice causes accelerated progression of aortic valve disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: In cultured porcine valve interstitial cells, CNP inhibited pathological differentiation via the guanylate cyclase NPR2 (natriuretic peptide receptor 2) and not the G-protein-coupled clearance receptor NPR3 (natriuretic peptide receptor 3). We used Npr2+/- and Npr2+/-;Ldlr-/- mice and wild-type littermate controls to examine the valvular effects of deficient CNP/NPR2 signaling in vivo, in the context of both moderate and advanced aortic valve disease. Myofibrogenesis in cultured Npr2+/- fibroblasts was insensitive to CNP treatment, whereas aged Npr2+/- and Npr2+/-;Ldlr-/- mice developed cardiac dysfunction and ventricular fibrosis. Aortic valve function was significantly impaired in Npr2+/- and Npr2+/-;Ldlr-/- mice versus wild-type littermates, with increased valve thickening, myofibrogenesis, osteogenesis, proteoglycan synthesis, collagen accumulation, and calcification. 9.4% of mice heterozygous for Npr2 had congenital bicuspid aortic valves, with worse aortic valve function, fibrosis, and calcification than those Npr2+/- with typical tricuspid aortic valves or all wild-type littermate controls. Moreover, cGK (cGMP-dependent protein kinase) activity was downregulated in Npr2+/- valves, and CNP triggered synthesis of cGMP and activation of cGK1 (cGMP-dependent protein kinase 1) in cultured porcine valve interstitial cells. Finally, aged Npr2+/-;Ldlr-/- mice developed dilatation of the ascending aortic, with greater aneurysmal progression in Npr2+/- mice with bicuspid aortic valves than those with tricuspid valves. CONCLUSIONS: Our data establish CNP/NPR2 signaling as a novel regulator of aortic valve development and disease and elucidate the therapeutic potential of targeting this pathway to arrest disease progression.

Vascular Tone Regulation Induced by C-Type Natriuretic Peptide: Differences in Endothelium-Dependent and -Independent Mechanisms Involved in Normotensive and Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats.

Given that the role of C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) in the regulation of vascular tone in hypertensive states is unclear, we hypothesized that impaired response of the nitric oxide system to CNP in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) could affect vascular relaxation induced by the peptide in this model of hypertension, and that other endothelial systems or potassium channels opening could also be involved. We examined the effect of CNP on isolated SHR aortas, and the hindlimb vascular resistance (HVR) in response to CNP administration compared to normotensive rats. Aortas were mounted in an isometric organ bath and contracted with phenylephrine. CNP relaxed arteries in a concentration-dependent manner but was less potent in inducing relaxation in SHR. The action of CNP was diminished by removal of the endothelium, inhibition of nitric oxide synthase by Nω-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, and inhibition of soluble guanylyl cyclase by 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-alpha]quinoxalin-1-one in both groups. In contrast, blockade of cyclooxygenase or subtype 2 bradykinin receptor increased CNP potency only in SHR. In both Wistar and SHR, CNP relaxation was blunted by tetraethylammonium and partially inhibited by BaCl2 and iberiotoxin, indicating that it was due to opening of the Kir and BKCa channels. However, SHR seem to be more sensitive to Kir channel blockade and less sensitive to BKCa channel blockade than normotensive rats. In addition, CNP decreases HVR in Wistar and SHR, but the effect of CNP increasing blood flow was more marked in SHR. We conclude that CNP induces aorta relaxation by activation of the nitric oxide system and opening of potassium channels, but the response to the peptide is impaired in conductance vessel of hypertensive rats.

Role of C-type natriuretic peptide in the function of normal human sperm.

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) is a newly discovered type of local regulatory factor that mediates its biological effects through the specific, membrane-bound natriuretic peptide receptor-B (NPR-B). Recent studies have established that CNP is closely related to male reproductive function. The aims of this study were to determine the distribution of CNP/NPR-B in human ejaculated spermatozoa through different methods (such as immunolocalization, real time polymerase chain reaction and Western Blot), and then to evaluate the influence of CNP on sperm function i n vitro, such as motility and acrosome reaction. Human semen samples were collected from consenting donors who met the criteria of the World Health Organization for normozoospermia. Our results show that the specific receptor NPR-B of CNP is localized in the acrosomal region of the head and the membrane of the front-end tail of the sperm, and there is no signal of CNP in human sperm. Compared with the control, CNP can induce a significant dose-dependent increase in spermatozoa motility and acrosome reaction. In summary, CNP/NPR-B can affect sperm motility and acrosome reaction, thus regulating the reproductive function of males. CNP may be a new key factor in regulating sperm function.

Natriuretic peptides stimulate oocyte meiotic resumption in bovine.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the expression of mRNA encoding natriuretic peptides (NPs) and their receptors in the cumulus-oocyte complex in cattle, a monovular mammalian species, and also to investigate the role of NPs in oocyte meiotic resumption in vitro. mRNA was observed for the NP precursor type-A (NPPA), type-C (NPPC), NP receptor-1 (NPR-1), receptor-2 (NPR-2) and receptor-3 (NPR-3) in bovine cumulus cells, and NPR-2 mRNA was observed in oocytes. These results are different from those obtained in mouse and pig models. The effects of NPPA, NP precursor type-B (NPPB) and NPPC on the resumption of arrested meiosis maintained by forskolin were studied at three different doses (10, 100 and 1000nM) with a 12h culture system. The germinal vesicle breakdown rates were greater (P≤0.05) in oocytes that were cultured in the presence of one or a combination of NPs (from 44% to 73%) than the negative control (from 24% to 27%). Additionally, it was demonstrated that the concentration of cyclic guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP) is increased by NPPA and NPPC in oocytes and cumulus cells after 3h of in vitro maturation. However, in both groups, the concentration of cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) in the oocyte did not increase between 3 and 6h of culture, even when forskolin was used. In summary, we observed the presence of mRNA for NPs and their receptors in the bovine cumulus-oocyte complex and demonstrated that, in vitro, NPPA, NPPB and NPPC stimulate oocyte meiotic resumption in a monovular species.

Intraovarian control of early folliculogenesis.

Although hormonal regulation of ovarian follicle development has been extensively investigated, most studies concentrate on the development of early antral follicles to the preovulatory stage, leading to the successful use of exogenous FSH for infertility treatment. Accumulating data indicate that preantral follicles are under stringent regulation by FSH and local intraovarian factors, thus providing the possibility to develop new therapeutic approaches. Granulosa cell-derived C-type natriuretic factor not only suppresses the final maturation of oocytes to undergo germinal vesicle breakdown before ovulation but also promotes preantral and antral follicle growth. In addition, several oocyte- and granulosa cell-derived factors stimulate preantral follicle growth by acting through wingless, receptor tyrosine kinase, receptor serine kinase, and other signaling pathways. In contrast, the ovarian Hippo signaling pathway constrains follicle growth and disruption of Hippo signaling promotes the secretion of downstream CCN growth factors capable of promoting follicle growth. Although the exact hormonal factors involved in primordial follicle activation has yet to be elucidated, the protein kinase B (AKT) and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathways are important for the activation of dormant primordial follicles. Hippo signaling disruption after ovarian fragmentation, combined with treating ovarian fragments with phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) inhibitors and phosphoinositide-3-kinase stimulators to augment AKT signaling, promote the growth of preantral follicles in patients with primary ovarian insufficiency, leading to a new infertility intervention for such patients. Elucidation of intraovarian mechanisms underlying early folliculogenesis may allow the development of novel therapeutic strategies for patients diagnosed with primary ovarian insufficiency, polycystic ovary syndrome, and poor ovarian response to FSH stimulation, as well as for infertile women of advanced reproductive age.

Brain natriuretic peptide and C-type natriuretic peptide maintain porcine oocyte meiotic arrest.

Recent studies have shown that C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) serves as a key control system during mouse oocyte maturation. We used pig models (in vitro and in vivo) to explore the role played by the natriuretic peptide family in porcine oocyte maturation. We reported the expression and location of natriuretic peptide system in different stages of porcine antral follicles. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and CNP were expressed primarily in granulosa cells, whereas brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and natriuretic peptide receptor-B (NPRB) receptor were expressed in granulosa cells (both cumulus and mural granulosa cells) and thecal internal cells, and the natriuretic peptide receptor-A (NPRA) receptor predominantly in thecal cells. Upon in vitro culture, BNP and CNP maintained meiotic arrest of oocytes associated with cumulus cells. The expression levels of BNP, CNP, and the NPRB receptor increased upon treatment of prepubertal gilts with pregnant mare's serum gonadotropin and decreased upon subsequent human chorionic gonadotropin injection. Such dynamic changes in the expression of natriuretic peptides and their receptor paralleled the proportions of oocytes exhibiting nuclear maturation in vivo. These data indicated that BNP and CNP co-contributed to maintaining porcine meiotic arrest under physiological condition and lutenizing hormone (LH) relieved this inhibitory effect by decreasing the expression levels of BNP and CNP in vivo. Our present work, combined with previous data, improved the understanding of the oocyte meiotic arrest mechanisms and further revealed that natriuretic peptides serve as oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI) to inhibit oocyte maturation in mammals.

Role of C-type natriuretic peptide signalling in maintaining cartilage and bone function.

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) has been demonstrated in human and mouse models to play critical roles in cartilage homeostasis and endochondral bone formation. Indeed, targeted inactivation of the genes encoding CNP results in severe dwarfism and skeletal defects with a reduction in growth plate chondrocytes. Conversely, cartilage-specific overexpression of CNP was observed to rescue the phenotype of CNP deficient mice and significantly enhanced bone growth caused by growth plate expansion. In vitro studies reported that exogenous CNP influenced chondrocyte differentiation, proliferation and matrix synthesis with the response dependent on CNP concentration. The chondroprotective effects were shown to be mediated by natriuretic peptide receptor (Npr)2 and enhanced synthesis of cyclic guanosine-3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP) production. Recent studies also showed certain homeostatic effects of CNP are mediated by the clearance inactivation receptor, Npr3, highlighting several mechanisms in maintaining tissue homeostasis. However, the CNP signalling systems are complex and influenced by multiple factors that will lead to altered signalling and tissue dysfunction. This review will discuss the differential role of CNP signalling in regulating cartilage and bone homeostasis and how the pathways are influenced by age, inflammation or sex. Evidence indicates that enhanced CNP signalling may prevent growth retardation and protect cartilage in patients with inflammatory joint disease.

Endothelial C-type natriuretic peptide maintains vascular homeostasis.

The endothelium plays a fundamental role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by releasing factors that regulate local blood flow, systemic blood pressure, and the reactivity of leukocytes and platelets. Accordingly, endothelial dysfunction underpins many cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Herein, we evaluated mice with endothelial-specific deletion of Nppc, which encodes C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), and determined that this mediator is essential for multiple aspects of vascular regulation. Specifically, disruption of CNP leads to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, atherogenesis, and aneurysm. Moreover, we identified natriuretic peptide receptor-C (NPR-C) as the cognate receptor that primarily underlies CNP-dependent vasoprotective functions and developed small-molecule NPR-C agonists to target this pathway. Administration of NPR-C agonists promotes a vasorelaxation of isolated resistance arteries and a reduction in blood pressure in wild-type animals that is diminished in mice lacking NPR-C. This work provides a mechanistic explanation for genome-wide association studies that have linked the NPR-C (Npr3) locus with hypertension by demonstrating the importance of CNP/NPR-C signaling in preserving vascular homoeostasis. Furthermore, these results suggest that the CNP/NPR-C pathway has potential as a disease-modifying therapeutic target for cardiovascular disorders.

Natriuretic peptide system and the heart.

The natriuretic peptide (NP) family includes atrial (ANP), brain or B-type (BNP) and C-type NP (CNP). A huge number of experimental and clinical studies, published in the 1st decade of this century, have added further support to the hypothesis that endocrine function in the human heart is a relevant component of a complex network including endocrine, nervous and immune systems. The NP hormones constitute a well-integrated regulatory system and share a similar spectrum of biological actions, although there are some differences in biological potency between ANP, BNP and CNP. However, several important issues on this field need to be investigated further. The production, secretion and peripheral degradation pathways of both BNP and CNP should be clarified in detail. In particular, the hypothesis that the circulating plasma pool of the prohormone can function as a precursor of the active peptide hormone should be demonstrated definitively. Recent findings indicate that peripheral processing of circulating prohormones could likely be submitted to regulatory rules, which might be impaired in patients with heart failure, opening up new perspectives even in the treatment of heart failure. This hypothesis suggests a novel pharmacological target for drugs inducing and/or modulating the maturation of the prohormone into active hormone.

Recent research on the growth plate: Recent insights into the regulation of the growth plate.

For most bones, elongation is driven primarily by chondrogenesis at the growth plates. This process results from chondrocyte proliferation, hypertrophy, and extracellular matrix secretion, and it is carefully orchestrated by complex networks of local paracrine factors and modulated by endocrine factors. We review here recent advances in the understanding of growth plate physiology. These advances include new approaches to study expression patterns of large numbers of genes in the growth plate, using microdissection followed by microarray. This approach has been combined with genome-wide association studies to provide insights into the regulation of the human growth plate. We also review recent studies elucidating the roles of bone morphogenetic proteins, fibroblast growth factors, C-type natriuretic peptide, and suppressor of cytokine signaling in the local regulation of growth plate chondrogenesis and longitudinal bone growth.

Protective effects of C-type natriuretic peptide on linear growth and articular cartilage integrity in a mouse model of inflammatory arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: The C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) signaling pathway is a major contributor to postnatal skeletal growth in humans. This study was undertaken to investigate whether CNP signaling could prevent growth delay and cartilage damage in an animal model of inflammatory arthritis. METHODS: We generated transgenic mice that overexpress CNP (B6.SJL-Col2a1-NPPC) in chondrocytes. We introduced the CNP transgene into mice with experimental systemic inflammatory arthritis (K/BxN T cell receptor [TCR]) and determined the effect of CNP overexpression in chondrocytes on the severity of arthritis, cartilage damage, and linear growth. We also examined primary chondrocyte cultures for changes in gene and protein expression resulting from CNP overexpression. RESULTS: K/BxN TCR mice exhibited linear growth delay (P < 0.01) compared to controls, and this growth delay was correlated with the severity of arthritis. Diminished chondrocyte proliferation and matrix production was also seen in K/BxN TCR mice. Compared to non-CNP-transgenic mice, K/BxN TCR mice with overexpressed CNP had milder arthritis, no growth delay, and less cartilage damage. Primary chondrocytes from mice overexpressing CNP were less sensitive to inflammatory cytokines than wild-type mouse chondrocytes. CONCLUSION: CNP overexpression in chondrocytes can prevent endochondral growth delay and protect against cartilage damage in a mouse model of inflammatory arthritis. Pharmacologic or biologic modulation of the CNP signaling pathway may prevent growth retardation and protect cartilage in patients with inflammatory joint diseases, such as juvenile idiopathic arthritis.

High concentration of C-type natriuretic peptide promotes VEGF-dependent vasculogenesis in the remodeled region of infarcted swine heart with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction.

BACKGROUND: Vasculogenesis is a hallmark of myocardial restoration. Post-ischemic late remodeling is associated with pathology and function worsening. At the same time, neo-vasculogenesis helps function improving and requires the release of vascular endothelial growth factor type A (VEGF-A). The vasculogenic role of C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), a cardiac paracrine hormone, is unknown in infarcted hearts with preserved left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction (EF). We explored whether myocardial VEGF-dependent vasculogenesis is affected by CNP. METHODS AND RESULTS: To this end, infarcted swine hearts were investigated by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), histological and molecular assays. At the fourth week, MRI showed that transmural myocardial infarction (MI) affected approximately 13% of the LV wall mass without impairing global function (LVEF>50%, n=9). Increased fibrosis, metalloproteases and capillary density were localized to the infarct border zone (BZ), and were associated with increased expression of CNP (p=0.03 vs. remote zone (RZ)), VEGF-A (p<0.001 vs. RZ), BNP, a marker of myocardial dysfunction (p<0.01 vs. RZ) and the endothelial marker, factor VIII-related antigen (p<0.01 vs. RZ). In vitro, CNP 1000 nM promoted VEGF-dependent vasculogenesis without affecting the cell growth and survival, although CNP 100 nM or a high concentration of VEGF-A halted vascular growth. CONCLUSIONS: CNP expression is locally increased in infarct remodeled myocardium in the presence of dense capillary network. The vasculogenic response requires the co-exposure to high concentration of CNP and VEGF-A. Our data will be helpful to develop combined myocardial delivery of CNP and VEGF-A genes in order to reverse the remodeling process.

C2238 atrial natriuretic peptide molecular variant is associated with endothelial damage and dysfunction through natriuretic peptide receptor C signaling.

RATIONALE: C2238 atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) minor allele (substitution of thymidine with cytosine in position 2238) associates with increased risk of cardiovascular events. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the mechanisms underlying the vascular effects of C2238-αANP. METHODS AND RESULTS: In vitro, human umbilical vein endothelial cell were exposed to either wild-type (T2238)- or mutant (C2238)-αANP. Cell survival and apoptosis were tested by Trypan blue, annexin V, and cleaved caspase-3 assays. C2238-αANP significantly reduced human umbilical vein endothelial cell survival and increased apoptosis. In addition, C2238-αANP reduced endothelial tube formation, as assessed by matrigel. C2238-αANP did not differentially modulate natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR)-A/B activity with respect to T2238-αANP, as evaluated by intracellular cGMP levels. In contrast, C2238-αANP, but not T2238-αANP, markedly reduced intracellular cAMP levels in an NPR-C-dependent manner. Accordingly, C2238-αANP showed higher affinity binding to NPR-C, than T2238-αANP. Either NPR-C inhibition by antisense oligonucleotide or NPR-C gene silencing by small interfering RNA rescued survival and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cell exposed to C2238-αANP. Similar data were obtained in human aortic endothelial cell with NPR-C knockdown. NPR-C activation by C2238-αANP inhibited the protein kinase A/Akt1 pathway and increased reactive oxygen species. Adenovirus-mediated Akt1 reactivation rescued the detrimental effects of C2238-αANP. Overall, these data indicate that C2238-αANP affects endothelial cell integrity through NPR-C-dependent inhibition of the cAMP/protein kinase A/Akt1 pathway and increased reactive oxygen species production. Accordingly, C2238-αANP caused impairment of acetylcholine-dependent vasorelaxation ex vivo, which was rescued by NPR-C pharmacological inhibition. Finally, subjects carrying C2238 minor allele showed early endothelial dysfunction, which highlights the clinical relevance of our results. CONCLUSIONS: C2238-αANP reduces endothelial cell survival and impairs endothelial function through NPR-C signaling. NPR-C targeting represents a potential strategy to reduce cardiovascular risk in C2238 minor-allele carriers.

ENaC is regulated by natriuretic peptide receptor-dependent cGMP signaling.

Epithelial sodium channels (ENaCs) located at the apical membrane of polarized epithelial cells are regulated by the second messenger guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP). The mechanism for this regulation has not been completely characterized. Guanylyl cyclases synthesize cGMP in response to various intracellular and extracellular signals. We investigated the regulation of ENaC activity by natriuretic peptide-dependent activation of guanylyl cyclases in Xenopus 2F3 cells. Confocal microscopy studies show natriuretic peptide receptors (NPRs), including those coupled to guanylyl cyclases, are expressed at the apical membrane of 2F3 cells. Single-channel patch-clamp studies using 2F3 cells revealed that atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) or 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-cGMP, but not C-type natriuretic peptide or cANP, decreased the open probability of ENaC. This suggests that NPR-A, but not NPR-B or NPR-C, is involved in the natriuretic peptide-mediated regulation of ENaC activity. Also, it is likely that a signaling pathway involving cGMP and nitric oxide (NO) are involved in this mechanism, since inhibitors of soluble guanylyl cyclase, protein kinase G, inducible NO synthase, or an NO scavenger blocked or reduced the effect of ANP on ENaC activity.

Interleukin-1ß, tumour necrosis factor-α and lipopolysaccharide induce C-type natriuretic peptide from canine aortic endothelial cells.

The N-terminal portion of pro C-type natriuretic peptide (NT-pCNP) has shown promise as a biomarker for sepsis in humans and dogs, however the mechanism of NT-pCNP production in dogs is unknown. Canine aortic endothelial cells were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid, peptidoglycan, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10, IL-21, CXCL-8, IFN-γ, VEGF-A or control (PBS), and NT-pCNP production was measured. Lipopolysaccharide, TNF-α, and IL-1ß significantly stimulated NT-pCNP production in a dose and time dependent manner; IL-1ß resulted in the greatest NT-pCNP concentrations. The other stimulants did not result in significant NT-pCNP production. The addition of serum to the cell culture model did not alter lipopolysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid or peptidoglycan induced NT-pCNP production. These data indicate that lipopolysaccharide, TNF-α and IL-1ß regulate CNP production from canine vascular endothelium and of the stimulants tested, IL-1ß is the predominant inducing factor. These data provide some initial insight into the mechanisms of CNP regulation in dogs.

C-type natriuretic peptide specifically acts on the pylorus and large intestine in mouse gastrointestinal tract.

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) exerts its main biological effects by binding to natriuretic peptide receptor B (NPR-B), a membrane-bound guanylyl cyclase receptor that produces cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). CNP is known to cause gastrointestinal (GI) smooth muscle relaxation. Experimental evidence suggests a connection between CNP signaling and GI function, with reactive regions in the GI tract possibly affecting transit; however, this relation has not yet been conclusively shown. Here, we show that CNP plays important region-specific roles in the GI tract of mice. We found that treatment with CNP (1 or 2 mg/kg) increased transient cGMP production in the pylorus, colon, and rectum, with the higher dose (2 mg/kg) enhancing gastric emptying in mice; this increase in cGMP levels was however absent in NPR-B-deficient short-limbed dwarfism (SLW) mouse. Furthermore, we found that NPR-B is highly expressed in the pylorus, colon, and rectum, being localized to nerve fibers and to the nuclei and cytoplasm of smooth muscle cells of the GI tract and blood vessels. Our in vivo findings showed that NPR-B-mediated cGMP production after CNP administration specifically acted on the pylorus, colon, and rectum and contributed to gastric emptying. CNP may thus be a potential therapeutic agent for GI motility/transit disorders such as ileus and pyloric stenosis.