B Vitamins in the nervous system: Current knowledge of the biochemical modes of action and synergies of thiamine, pyridoxine, and cobalamin.

BACKGROUND: Neurotropic B vitamins play crucial roles as coenzymes and beyond in the nervous system. Particularly vitamin B1 (thiamine), B6 (pyridoxine), and B12 (cobalamin) contribute essentially to the maintenance of a healthy nervous system. Their importance is highlighted by many neurological diseases related to deficiencies in one or more of these vitamins, but they can improve certain neurological conditions even without a (proven) deficiency. AIM: This review focuses on the most important biochemical mechanisms, how they are linked with neurological functions and what deficits arise from malfunctioning of these pathways. DISCUSSION: We discussed the main role of B Vitamins on several functions in the peripheral and central nervous system (PNS and CNS) including cellular energetic processes, antioxidative and neuroprotective effects, and both myelin and neurotransmitter synthesis. We also provide an overview of possible biochemical synergies between thiamine, pyridoxine, and cobalamin and discuss by which major roles each of them may contribute to the synergy and how these functions are inter-related and complement each other. CONCLUSION: Taking into account the current knowledge on the neurotropic vitamins B1, B6, and B12, we conclude that a biochemical synergy becomes apparent in many different pathways in the nervous system, particularly in the PNS as exemplified by their combined use in the treatment of peripheral neuropathy.

Inherited disorders of brain neurotransmitters: pathogenesis and diagnostic approach.

Neurotransmitters (NTs) play a central role in the efficient communication between neurons necessary for normal functioning of the nervous system. NTs can be divided into two groups: small molecule NTs and larger neuropeptide NTs. Inherited disorders of NTs result from a primary disturbance of NTs metabolism or transport. This group of disorders requires sophisticated diagnostic procedures. In this review we discuss disturbances in the metabolism of tetrahydrobiopterin, biogenic amines, γ-aminobutyric acid, foliate, pyridoxine-dependent enzymes, and also the glycine-dependent encephalopathy. We point to pathologic alterations of proteins involved in synaptic neurotransmission that may cause neurological and psychiatric symptoms. We postulate that synaptic receptors and transporter proteins for neurotransmitters should be investigated in unresolved cases. Patients with inherited neurotransmitters disorders present various clinical presentations such as mental retardation, refractory seizures, pyramidal and extrapyramidal syndromes, impaired locomotor patterns, and progressive encephalopathy. Every patient with suspected inherited neurotransmitter disorder should undergo a structured interview and a careful examination including neurological, biochemical, and imaging.

New treatment paradigms in neonatal metabolic epilepsies.

Neonatal seizures represent a major challenge among the epilepsies vis-à-vis seizure classification, electroclinical correlation, inherent excitability of neocortex, ontogenic characteristics of neurotransmitter receptors, and responsiveness to standard antiepileptic drugs. Each of these factors renders neonatal seizures more difficult to treat, and therapy has been a vexing area for recent advances in this seizure category. Conversely, specific metabolic disorders have very special therapeutic considerations in the clinical setting of neonatal seizures which require a high index of clinical suspicion and rapid intervention for a successful outcome. The prototype is pyridoxine dependency, although pyridoxal 5'-phosphate dependency is a recently recognized but treatable neonatal epilepsy that deserves earmarked distinction. Clinicians must remain vigilant for these possibilities, including atypical cases where apparent seizure-free intervals may occur. Folinic acid-dependent seizures are allelic with pyridoxine dependency. Serine-dependent seizures and glucose transporter deficiency may present with neonatal seizures and have specific therapy. A vital potassium channel regulated by serum ATP/ADP ratios in the pancreas and brain may be mutated with a resultant neuroendocrinopathy characterized by development delay, epilepsy, and neonatal diabetes (DEND). This requires oral hypoglycaemic therapy, and not insulin, for neurological responsiveness. The startle syndrome of hyperekplexia, which mimics neonatal epilepsy, has been associated with laryngospasm and sudden death but is treated with benzodiazepines.

Prevalence of pyridoxine dependent seizures in south Indian children with early onset intractable epilepsy: A hospital based prospective study.

OBJECTIVES: Determine the prevalence of pyridoxine dependent seizures in children less than 16 years of age attending a teaching hospital in south India with early onset (before 3 years) intractable epilepsy of unknown aetiology, using the criteria proposed by Baxter. METHOD: A cohort of 81 children, fulfilling the above criteria, was given 15 mg/kg/day of oral pyridoxine for 7 days. Non-responders were given a further 7-day trial of 30 mg/kg/day. Diagnosis of pyridoxine dependent seizures was made according to the criteria proposed by Baxter. RESULT: Six children (7.4%; four boys and two girls) were identified as definite cases and were continued on B6, without recurrence of seizures. Median age of seizure onset and diagnosis were 2.5 months and 2 year 9 months, respectively. No significant complications were observed with B6 therapy. CONCLUSION: Chance of identifying PDS is not low in a subpopulation of children with intractable early onset cryptogenic epilepsy using the criteria proposed by Baxter, which warrants a therapeutic trial with B6 in them.

Clinical aspects of the disorders of GABA metabolism in children.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: There has been increased recognition of the pediatric neurotransmitter disorders. This review focuses on the clinical disorders of GABA metabolism. RECENT FINDINGS: The known clinical disorders of GABA metabolism are pyridoxine dependent epilepsy, GABA-transaminase deficiency, SSADH deficiency, and homocarnosinosis. Pyridoxine dependent epilepsy is diagnosed clinically but potentially more common presentations, with later and atypical features, widen the spectrum. No gene locus has been confirmed; the pathophysiology may involve alterations in PLP transport, binding to GAD, or other PLP-dependent pathways. SSADH deficiency is associated with developmental delay, prominent language deficits, hypotonia, ataxia, hyporeflexia, and seizures. Increased detection is reported when specific ion monitoring is used for GHB on urine organic acids. The most consistent MRI abnormality is increased signal in the globus pallidus. MR spectroscopy has demonstrated the first example of increased endogenous GABA in human brain parenchyma in this disorder. GABA-transaminase deficiency and homocarnosinosis appear to be very rare but require CSF for detection, thus allowing for the possibility that these entities, as in the other pediatric neurotransmitter disorders, are underrecognized. SUMMARY: The disorders of GABA metabolism require an increased index of clinical suspicion. Pyridoxine dependent epilepsy is a treatable condition with a potentially widening clinical spectrum, but with a prognosis dependent on early intervention. SSADH deficiency has a heterogeneous spectrum and requires careful urine organic acid testing for screening, followed by enzymatic confirmation allowing appropriate prognostic and genetic counseling.

[Pyridoxine dependence: the importance of the clinical diagnosis and early treatment]. / Dependencia de piridoxina: valor del diagnóstico clínico y del tratamiento precoz.

OBJECTIVE: We described the electroclinical features, evolution and family history of two patients with definitive diagnosis of pyridoxine dependency. CASE REPORTS: The first patient is a 15-month-old girl who at 1 month of age started with seizures and irritability. At two months of age, pyridoxine was prescribed with a good control of seizures. At five months of age withdrawal response provoked 7 days after seizures recurrence. Pyridoxine was reintroduced and seizures disappeared. Her sister, at two months of age, started with refractory seizures. This sister also had mental retardation and at four years, she died. Her brother, 16 years old, presents mental retardation, refractory epilepsy and progressive motor and cognitive impairment. At 3 months of age, he started with seizures and at 15 years of age, pyridoxine was prescribed with a significative improvement the number of seizures and a better visual connection. The second patient is a 4-month-old girl who started with clonic seizures at 3 days of age and she had a good response to pyridoxine. Withdrawal response provoked seizure recurrence at 48 hours. Pyridoxine was introduced immediately with total control of seizures. She had two cousins with seizures who died at 3 months and 3 years of age respectively. CONCLUSION: When dealing with an infant with refractory seizures which start in the first two years of life and without etiology, we should consider the diagnosis of pyridoxine dependency. Early diagnosis and treatment with pyridoxine is crucial to avoid high risk morbidity and mortality. All infants in the two first years of life with refractory seizures without etiology must be prescribed oral pyridoxine (50-200 mg per day).

Rabbit aortic endothelial dysfunction by low-density lipoprotein is attenuated by L-arginine, L-ascorbate and pyridoxine.

1. We investigated the relative effectiveness of L-arginine, L-ascorbate and pyridoxine in preventing the impairment of endothelium-mediated vasorelaxation induced by native low-density lipoprotein (nLDL) from healthy subjects, oxidised LDL (oxLDL, formed by oxidation of nLDL) or nLDL from type II diabetic patients (dLDL). 2. Rabbit aortic rings were exposed to nLDL, dLDL or oxLDL (50-200 mg protein l-1), or corresponding vehicle, following which they were constricted with noradrenaline 10(-6) M; concentration-relaxation curves were determined to acetylcholine (ACh), A23187, or sodium nitroprusside (NP), in the absence or presence of L-arginine (10(-5)-10(-3) M), L-ascorbate (10(-5)-10(-3) M) and pyridoxine (0.5-2.0 mM). 3. nLDL, dLDL and oxLDL all inhibited relaxant responses to ACh and A23187, but not to NP, in a concentration-dependent manner (oxLDL>dLDL>nLDL). 4. In the presence of all LDL preparations, L-arginine, L-ascorbate or pyridoxine each improved ACh and A23187 responses, although none completely normalised endothelium-dependent relaxations. The maximal effect of L-arginine occurred at 10(-4) M. The combination of L-arginine 10(-4) M, L-ascorbate 10(-5) M and pyridoxine 2.0 mM was equally effective as L-arginine 10(-4) M alone. 5. Our results confirm that nLDL, dLDL and oxLDL exert inhibitory effects on endothelium dependent, but not endothelium independent, relaxation of rabbit aorta. ACh and A23187 responses in the presence of any LDL species can be ameliorated by supplementation with L-arginine, L-ascorbate or pyridoxine, either singly or in combination, with no agent or combination proving superior to L-arginine alone. Nevertheless, ACh and A23187 responses are not completely normalised with such supplements, suggesting that there also exists a component of LDL-induced inhibition of endothelium-mediated vasorelaxation that is independent of the nitric oxide system.

Effect of physical activity on thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin B-6 requirements.

Because exercise stresses metabolic pathways that depend on thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin B-6, the requirements for these vitamins may be increased in athletes and active individuals. Theoretically, exercise could increase the need for these micronutrients in several ways: through decreased absorption of the nutrients; by increased turnover, metabolism, or loss of the nutrients; through biochemical adaptation as a result of training that increases nutrient needs; by an increase in mitochondrial enzymes that require the nutrients; or through an increased need for the nutrients for tissue maintenance and repair. Biochemical evidence of deficiencies in some of these vitamins in active individuals has been reported, but studies examining these issues are limited and equivocal. On the basis of metabolic studies, the riboflavin status of young and older women who exercise moderately (2.5-5 h/wk) appears to be poorer in periods of exercise, dieting, and dieting plus exercise than during control periods. Exercise also increases the loss of vitamin B-6 as 4-pyridoxic acid. These losses are small and concomitant decreases in blood vitamin B-6 measures have not been documented. There are no metabolic studies that have compared thiamine status in active and sedentary persons. Exercise appears to decrease nutrient status even further in active individuals with preexisting marginal vitamin intakes or marginal body stores. Thus, active individuals who restrict their energy intake or make poor dietary choices are at greatest risk for poor thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin B-6 status.

Effects of vitamin B-6 on (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism.

To investigate interactions between vitamin B-6 and fatty acid metabolism, male Wistar rats were fed a vitamin B-6 (B-6)-deficient diet consisting of 70% vitamin-free casein and 10% perilla oil [approximately 63% alpha-linolenic acid, (n-3)] for 5 wk. The amounts of linoleic acid (n-6) and arachidonic acid (n-6) in the B-6-deficient group changed only slightly compared with those in a pair-fed control group. The amount of linoleic acid increased and arachidonic acid decreased in the plasma total lipid fraction, and the ratios of both eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the B-6-deficient group were significantly lower than for the controls. The ratios of alpha-linolenic acid and EPA were higher, and DHA lower, in the B-6-deficient group than in the pair-fed control group in the total lipid as well as phospholipid fractions in liver microsomes. The activity of delta6-desaturase was significantly lower in the B-6-deficient group than in the pair-fed control group (approximately 64%), and acyl-CoA oxidase activity, an initial enzyme of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway, was reduced by approximately 80% in the B-6-deficient group. These data suggest that B-6 deficiencies impair the metabolism of (n-3) PUFA from alpha-linolenic acid to EPA and DHA with the most pronounced reduction in the production of DHA.

[Vitamin B6].

1934, vitamin B6 was discovered by P. György. Vitamin B6 consists of 3 closely related pyrimidine derivatives: pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine and their phosphate esters. The tumor-specific compound has been recently found to be as a new B6 derivatives. The active form of vitamin B6 is pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) which is produced by multi-metabolizing enzymes including pyridoxine kinase and PNP/PMP oxidase. PLP functions as the coenzymes of many enzymes which catalyze biochemical reactions such as transamination and decarboxylation. A novel physiological function of PLP which is the negative modulator of the steroid-dependent gene expression and the albumin gene expression has been also revealed.

Current knowledge concerning optimum nutritional status of riboflavin, niacin and pyridoxine.

The term 'optimum nutrition' has evolved from a perceived need to base recommendations for nutrient intakes firmly in the context of function. It follows that 'optimum nutritional status' for individual nutrients should be defined in terms of biochemical or physiological markers having some functional value but also showing an appropriate relationship to nutrient intake. The present short review considers the current position regarding such markers for riboflavin, pyridoxine and niacin. It is concluded that whilst there are several biochemical measures which respond to changes in intake of each of these vitamins, no single measure is wholly satisfactory as a marker of optimum status.

Pyridoxine dependent epilepsy: a suggestive electroclinical pattern.

AIMS: To determine if there is an electroencephalographic pattern suggestive of pyridoxine dependent epilepsy that could be used to improve the chances of early diagnosis. METHODS: A retrospective study was made of all the clinical records and electroencephalograms of neonates identified with pyridoxine dependent seizures between 1983 and 1994, at this hospital. Neonates whose seizures began after more than 28 days of life were excluded; in all, five patients from four families were studied. Follow up ranged from 2 to 10 years. RESULTS: A history of miscarriage and neonatal death during an epileptic seizure had occurred in the siblings of two families. One mother reported rhythmic movements of her child during the last month of pregnancy. At birth, all babies were hypotonic; four had decreased visual alertness. All babies were agitated, irritable, jittery, hyperalert, and exhibited sleeplessness and a startle reaction to touch and sound. Age of onset of seizures varied from 30 minutes to 3 days. Seizures of various types were recorded in all cases on EEG tracings, including spasms, myoclonic seizures, partial clonic, and secondary generalised seizures. Burst-suppression patterns occurred in three cases, and a combination of continuous and discontinuous patterns in two others. Bilateral high voltage delta slow wave activity was observed in four patients. Psychomotor delay was severe in three patients, moderate in one, and mild in one. CONCLUSIONS: There is an identifiable EEG pattern that is highly suggestive of pyridoxine dependent epilepsy. Pyridoxine dependent epilepsy is probably underdiagnosed.

Vitamin B status in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome.

Some patients with chronic fatigue syndrome say they benefit from taking vitamin supplements. We assessed functional status for the B vitamins pyridoxine, riboflavin and thiamine in 12 vitamin-untreated CFS patients and in 18 healthy controls matched for age and sex. Vitamin-dependent activities--aspartate aminotransferase (AST) for pyridoxine, glutathione reductase (GTR) for riboflavin, transketolase (TK) for thiamine--were measured in erythrocyte haemolysates before and after in-vitro addition of the relevant vitamin. For all three enzymes basal activity (U/g Hb) was lower in CFS patients than in controls: AST 2.84 (SD 0.62) vs 4.61 (1.43), P < 0.001; GTR 6.13 (1.89) vs 7.42 (1.25), P < 0.04; TK 0.50 (0.13) vs 0.60 (0.07), P < 0.04. This was also true of activated values: AST 4.91 (0.54) vs 7.89 (2.11), P < 0.001; GTR 8.29 (1.60) vs 10.0 (1.80), P < 0.001; TK 0.56 (0.19) vs 0.66 (0.08), P < 0.07. The activation ratios, however, did not differ between the groups. These data provide preliminary evidence of reduced functional B vitamin status, particularly of pyridoxine, in CFS patients.

Mutation and polymorphic marker analyses of 65K- and 67K-glutamate decarboxylase genes in two families with pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy.

Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy is a disease inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, characterized by rapid response to pharmacological dosages of pyridoxine. The defect has been suggested to reside in glutamate decarboxylase (GAD), since a mutant GAD with an abnormally high Km for a cofactor, pyridoxal phosphate, could not synthesize an adequate amount of gamma-amino butyric acid [Scriver and Whelan (1969) Ann NY Acad Sci 166: 83]. To test this hypothesis, we studied two affected families by screening for mutations in the GAD mRNA and by analyzing a polymorphic marker in the GAD gene. Since two forms of GAD, GAD65 and GAD67, have been identified in human brain, we analyzed both forms. To overcome the limited accessibility of brain tissues, we utilized the minute amounts of GAD mRNAs ectopically transcribed in lymphoblasts. The ectopic GAD transcripts were amplified by reverse-transcription-mediated, nested polymerase chain reaction for mutation analysis. Two and three base substitutions were found in GAD65 and GAD67 cDNAs, respectively. All of them were, however, polymorphisms that were also found in control subjects. We then examined a (CA) repeat polymorphism in the GAD65 gene and found that different maternal alleles were transmitted to two affected sibs in one family. Thus, an etiological mechanism other than a K(m) mutant GAD is responsible for pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy.

B vitamins and homocysteine in cardiovascular disease and aging.

The sulfur-containing amino acid, homocysteine, is formed from the essential amino acid methionine, and a number of B vitamins are involved in methionine metabolism. Pyridoxine, vitamin B6, is a cofactor for cystathionine beta synthase, which mediates the transformation of homocysteine to cystathionine, the initial step in the transsulfuration pathway and the urinary excretion of sulfur. In a normal diet there is conservation of the carbon skeleton, and about 50% of the homocysteine formed is remethylated to methionine via steps that require folic acid and vitamin B12. A deficiency of any of these three vitamins leads to modest homocyst(e)ine elevation, as does diminished renal function, both of which are common in the elderly. It is also established that homocyst(e)ine elevation of this order is associated with increased cardiovascular risk but is also associated with most established risk factors, although it is thought to be an independent contributor. In the inborn error of metabolism homocystinuria due to cystathionine beta synthase deficiency there is greatly increased circulating homocyst(e)ine and a clear association with precocious vascular disease. In about 50% of these patients there is a vascular event before the age of 30 years. The homocysteine-induced adverse vascular changes appear to result from endothelial and smooth muscle cell effects and increased thrombogenesis. We have documented a highly significant reduction in the occurrence of vascular events during 539 patient years of treatment in 32 patients with cystathionine beta synthase deficiency (mean age 30 years, range 9-66 years) by aggressive homocyst(e)ine lowering with pyridoxine, folic acid, and B12 (p = 0.0001). The 15 pyridoxine nonresponsive patients also received oral betaine. Although a cause and effect relationship is postulated for the increased cardiovascular risk associated with mild homocysteine elevation, a common cause of this elevation is the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase C677T mutation. Homozygotes occur in about 11% of Caucasian populations. However, the mutation is not associated with increased coronary risk. Since mild homocysteine elevation is easily normalized by B vitamin supplementation, usually with folic acid, it remains for controlled clinical trials of this inexpensive therapy to determine whether normalizing mild homocyst(e)ine elevation reduces cardiovascular risk.

The role of homocysteine, folate and other B-vitamins in the development of atherosclerosis.

Recently, elevated homocysteine blood concentrations have been identified as an independent risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic lesions. The amino acid homocysteine is metabolized in the human body involving the vitamins folic acid, B12 and B6 as essential cofactors and coenzymes, respectively. There is an inverse relationship between the status of the relevant B-vitamins and the homocysteine blood concentration. Supplementation of these vitamins results in a significant reduction of the homocysteine level. Nutritive amounts seem to be sufficient to obtain this reduction, even in the case of elevated homocysteine levels.