Receptive field characteristics of stretch-insensitive mechanosensitive units in the rat urinary bladder.

INTRODUCTION: The pelvic, hypogastric and pudendal nerves carry sensory information from the urinary bladder. The pelvic nerve is reported to be the most important one of these afferent nerves in producing urinary bladder sensation. The primary types of mechanoreceptors in the bladder can be divided into stretch-sensitive and stretch-insensitive units. The former is considered to be more important in producing bladder sensation. However, little is known about the precise receptive field properties of the stretch-insensitive mechanoreceptors in the urinary bladder. Therefore, in this study, we systematically investigated the receptive field characteristics of the pelvic single unit innervating the rat bladder wall. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Functional single unit recordings were made from the pelvic nerve afferent filaments of anesthetized rats. A von Frey device was used for quantitative mechanical stimulation of the bladder surface. In addition, electrical stimulation was used for estimating conduction velocities of the nerve fibers in the receptive field. RESULTS: The threshold value for mechanical stimulation was statistically lower at the caudal portion of the bladder body (sites IV and V) than the other bladder sites. The bladder neck (site I) had the highest mechanical stimulation threshold value for the bladder stretch-insensitive mechanoreceptors. In most cases, the pelvic nerve had bilateral receptive fields. The majority of the pelvic nerve afferents had conduction velocities in the slow A-δ or C fiber range. Mechanical stimulation threshold values were higher in males than in females in a portion of the bladder sites. DISCUSSION: The pelvic stretch-insensitive bladder mechanoreceptors are 1) higher threshold at the bladder base, 2) contain large bilateral receptive fields and 3) demonstrate relatively slow conduction velocities. These characteristics indicate a non-uniform distribution of stretch-insensitive mechanoreceptors in the rat urinary bladder wall.

Differences in the expression of transient receptor potential channel V1, transient receptor potential channel A1 and mechanosensitive two pore-domain K+ channels between the lumbar splanchnic and pelvic nerve innervations of mouse urinary bladder and colon.

The bladder and distal colon are innervated by lumbar splanchnic (LSN) and pelvic nerves (PN) whose axons arise from dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons at thoracolumbar (TL) and lumbosacral (LS) spinal levels, respectively. In an attempt to understand the molecular basis of differences between LSN and PN mechanosensitive afferents, we analyzed the gene expression of two potentially counteracting ion channel groups involved in mechanosensation, transient receptor potential channels (TRPV1 and TRPA1) and mechanosensitive two pore-domain K(+) (K(2P)) channels (TREK-1, TREK-2 and TRAAK), in TL and LS DRG neurons innervating mouse bladder or distal colon. The proportion of TRPV1-expressing cells (41∼61%) did not differ between TL and LS neurons innervating bladder or colon. TRPA1 was seldom detected in bladder LS neurons whereas it was expressed in 64∼66% of bladder TL, colon TL and colon LS neurons. Coexpression of TRPV1 and TRPA1 was frequent. TREK-1-expressing cells were more prevalent in LS than TL ganglia in both bladder- and colon-DRG neurons. All three K(2P) channels were detected more frequently in TRPV1-positive neurons in TL ganglia. More than half of TL neurons expressing only TRPA1 were devoid of any of the three K(2P) channels, whereas all TL neurons expressing both TRPA1 and TRPV1 expressed at least one of the K(2P) channels. These results reveal clear differences between LSN and PN sensory pathways in TRPA1 and TREK-1 gene expression and in the gene expression of K(2P) channels in TRPV1-expressing neurons. This study further documents heterogeneity of visceral afferents based on combinations of the five channels examined.

Changes in the number and volume of NPY and VIP neurons from periprostatic accessory vegetative ganglia in pre- and peripubertal rats. A stereological study.

The amount of neurons of periprostatic accessory ganglia in pre- and peripubertal rats was studied to ascertain whether the development of these autonomic ganglia is androgen-dependent. Stereological estimates of the volumes and number of neurons immunoreactive to protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) were carried out. Immunostaining of androgen receptors (AR) in the ganglia was also performed. The ganglionic neurons from the two groups studied were immunoreactive to PGP 9.5, NPY, and VIP. Almost all the neurons were immunostained for AR. The ganglionic volume showed a significant increase in peripubertal prostate in comparison with the prepubertal gland. No significant changes were observed with respect to the absolute number of neurons immunoreactive to all the antigens. The neuronal volume was significantly increased in peripubertal rats in comparison with prepubertal animals. These findings led us to the following conclusions: There is no evidence of neurogenesis during pubertal development in the periprostatic accessory ganglia of the rat. The increase of ganglionic volume in puberty is due to the growth in neuronal volume. There were no differences between the sizes of NPY and VIP neurons in pubertal periprostatic accessory ganglia. The development of periprostatic vegetative neurons is androgen-dependent.

Experimental study to localize the neurons projecting to the lamb retractor penis muscle.

Aim of the present study was to locate the neurons projecting to the lamb retractor penis muscle, a smooth muscle associated to the penis. The retrograde neuronal tracer Fast Blue was injected into the bulbopenile portion of the left retractor penis muscle. Labelled cells were found bilaterally in the S2-S4 spinal ganglia, from the last two lumbar (L5-L6 or L6-L7) to S4 sympathetic trunk ganglia and in the hypogastric and pelvic plexuses. Fast blue-positive (FB+) neurons were also found in the intermediate gray substance in the S1-S4 segments of the spinal cord. Our research enables us to describe the organization of the innervation of the lamb retractor penis muscle, highlighting the site of the primary afferent, postganglionic efferent and presumably preganglionic parasympathetic neurons projecting to the muscle.

Deafferentation and axotomy each cause neurturin-independent upregulation of c-Jun in rodent pelvic ganglia.

The pelvic ganglia provide autonomic innervation to pelvic viscera and urogenital organs. These neurons are susceptible to axonal injury during pelvic surgical procedures, yet their regenerative mechanisms are poorly understood. The AP-1 transcription factor component, c-Jun, has been strongly linked to regenerative events in injured sensory, sympathetic and somatic motor neurons and is considered to be required for regeneration. Our aims were: (1) to identify whether c-Jun was upregulated by injury in pelvic parasympathetic neurons, and (2) whether injury was required for c-Jun upregulation, by performing deafferentation (i.e., severance of lumbar and sacral spinal inputs), which elicits sprouting of axon collaterals from pelvic ganglion neurons but does not injure them. A week after penile nerve axotomy in rats and mice, upregulation of c-Jun occurred in numerous glia within pelvic ganglia and almost half of the retrogradely-labelled penis-projecting neurons but also occurred in many uninjured noradrenergic neurons. We also identified upregulation of c-Jun in many pelvic ganglion neurons and glia a week after deafferentation, suggesting that c-Jun expression is activated in sprouting but uninjured neurons. A c-Jun response was retained in injured or deafferented parasympathetic neurons in neurturin knockout mice. In summary, neurturin-independent c-Jun expression within pelvic ganglion neurons does not require a direct injury and may instead be causally linked to axonal sprouting, regardless of stimulus. This study revealed mechanisms involved in structural remodelling of pelvic autonomic nerve circuits that may be modulated to improve regenerative processes.

The uterosacral complex: ligament or neurovascular pathway? Anatomical and histological study of fetuses and adults.

The aim of this study was to define the anatomical relationships of the uterosacral ligament complex (USLC) and to analyze histologically its content. Three fetal and four adult cadavers were used. Anatomical dissections were carried out. Eight fresh biopsies (four fetal and four adult) of the USLC were analyzed histologically and immunohistochemically. Specimens were stained with hematoxylin eosin safran coloration, with anti-nervous cell antibodies (PS 100) and with anti-smooth muscle antibodies (to visualize vessel walls). By removing the visceral pelvic fascia, nervous fibers were found within the USLC forming the hypogastric plexus. Histologically, the USLC contained connective tissue, nervous fibers, sympathetic nodes, vessels, and fatty tissue. No structured ligamentous organization was identified. The uterosacral "ligament" is a "complex" integrating connective tissue as well as nervous and vascular elements. Radical excisions and USLC suspension during pelvic floor reconstructive surgery should be performed with caution in order to preserve pelvic innervation.

Anatomical and physiological properties of pelvic ganglion neurons in female mice.

Most neurons that regulate motility and blood flow in female pelvic organs are located within pelvic (paracervical) ganglia. In this study we investigated the anatomical and physiological properties of neurons within mouse (C57/Bl/6) paracervical ganglia. Most neurons showed immunoreactivity for choline acetyl transferase (CHAT) and were presumably cholinergic. Few neurons (approximately 5%) were tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) positive. Immunohistochemical labelling for microtubule associated protein 2 showed most neurons had small somata (cross sectional area approximately 300 microm(2)) and lacked dendrites. Action potential (AP) discharge characteristics, determined by depolarising current step injection, revealed most neurons (70%) adapted rapidly to depolarising current injection and were classified as "phasic". The remaining neurons discharged APs throughout the current step and were classified as "tonic". Membrane properties and current-voltage relationships were similar in phasic and tonic neurons, however the afterhyperpolarisation was significantly smaller in tonic neurons. Stimulation of preganglionic axons usually evoked a single strong preganglionic input (21/27 and 9/10 for pelvic and hypogastric nerves, respectively). In 19 preparations where we tested for inputs from both nerves pelvic inputs predominated (23/45 neurons) and inputs via the hypogastric nerve were rarely observed (3/45 neurons). Together, our data indicate that most neurons within mouse paracervical ganglia are cholinergic and parasympathetic. As there is little anatomical or functional evidence for integration of preganglionic inputs we propose that the role of paracervical neurons is restricted to one of spatial amplification or filtering of preganglionic inputs.

Neurturin regulates postnatal differentiation of parasympathetic pelvic ganglion neurons, initial axonal projections, and maintenance of terminal fields in male urogenital organs.

We have investigated the development of autonomic nerves in the urogenital tract of male mice and the effect of neurturin gene deletion on this process. At birth, autonomic innervation of the reproductive organs was sparse, but urinary bladder smooth muscle was well innervated. Further innervation of reproductive tissues occurred until P21, but noradrenergic axons established their complete terminal field later than nitrergic cholinergic axons: in adults the former are more prevalent, yet this became apparent only at P7 (vas deferens, seminal vesicles), P14 (prostate) or after P14 (penis). Neurturin was essential for initial projection of axons (mucosa of vas deferens), maintenance of terminal fields (prostate and seminal vesicles), or both functions (cavernosum of penis). In contrast, some targets (e.g., bladder muscle and suburothelium, vas deferens smooth muscle) were unaffected by neurturin gene deletion. Pelvic ganglion neurons more than doubled between birth and adulthood, probably as aresult of continued maturation of p75-positive undifferentiated neuronal precursors rather than cell division. The adult number of neurons was achieved by P7 (sympathetic) or P21 (parasympathetic). In adult neurturin knockout mice, there were approximately 25% fewer parasympathetic neurons compared with wild types, because of failure of differentiation after P14. This study revealed the complexity of postnatal maturation of urogenital innervation, with each organ showing a distinct chronology of innervation and different requirement for neurturin. Our results also indicate that in adults there will be distinct differences in neurturin dependence between organs, such that proregenerative therapies may have to be tailored specifically for the nerve pathway of interest.

Demonstration of intrinsic innervation of the guinea pig upper urinary tract using whole-mount preparation.

AIMS: The morphology and functional importance of the autonomic nervous system in the upper urinary tract is still not completely understood. Previous histological studies investigating the innervation of the urinary tract have mainly used conventional sections in which the three-dimensional structure of the intramural innervation is difficult to achieve. In contrast, the whole-mount preparation technique is a suitable method for visualizing the distribution of the mesh-like neuronal networks within the urinary tract. METHODS: The distribution and regional variation of neurofilament (NF), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), and substance P-immunoreactive (SP-IR) neurons, as well as acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase (NADPH-d)-positive neurons were investigated using whole-mount preparations of the guinea pig upper urinary tract. RESULTS: Two distinct nervous plexuses were detected within the muscle layers containing NF, TH, ChAT, and SP-IR nerves. AChE-positive nerves were seen in all layers. Only moderate NADPH-d-positive innervation was found. Renal pelvis, upper and lower part of the ureter showed an overall increased innervation compared to the middle portion of the ureter. Ganglia were found at the pelviureteric border displaying NF and TH immunoreactivity. CONCLUSION: The whole-mount preparation technique provides an elegant method for assessing the three-dimensional architecture of ureteral innervation. The guinea pig upper urinary tract is richly supplied with adrenergic, cholinergic, nitrergic, and sensory nerves which suggest that the autonomous nervous system plays an important role in controlling ureteral motility and blood flow.

The same dorsal root ganglion neurons innervate uterus and colon in the rat.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether primary sensory neurons that innervate the uterus receive convergent input from the colon. To test this, in the rat, cell bodies of colonic and uterine dorsal root ganglia were retrogradely labeled with fluorescent tracer dyes microinjected into the colon/rectum and bilaterally into the uterine horns. Ganglia were harvested, cryoprotected and cut into 20 microm slices to identify positively stained cells for fluorescent microscopy. Up to 5% of neurons were colon-specific or uterus-specific, and 10-15% of labeled ganglion neurons innervate both viscera in the L1, L2, L6 and S1-S3 levels. These results suggest a novel form of visceral sensory integration in the dorsal root ganglion that may underlie comorbidity of many functional pain syndromes.

Pelvic plexus contributes ganglion cells to the hindgut enteric nervous system.

The hindgut enteric nervous system (ENS) contains cells originating from vagal and sacral neural crest. In avians, the sacral crest gives rise to the nerve of Remak (NoR) and pelvic plexus. Whereas the NoR has been suggested to serve as the source of sacral crest-derived cells to the gut, the contribution of the pelvic ganglia is unknown. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that the pelvic ganglia contribute ganglion cells to the hindgut ENS. We observed that the quail pelvic plexus develops from neural crest-derived cells that aggregate around the cloaca at embryonic day 5. Using chick-quail tissue recombinations, we found that hindgut grafts did not contain enteric ganglia unless the pelvic plexus was included. Neurofibers extended from the NoR into the intestine, but no ganglion cell contribution from the NoR was identified. These results demonstrate that the pelvic plexus, and not the NoR, serves as the staging area for sacral crest-derived cells to enter the avian hindgut, confirming the evolutionary conservation of this important embryologic process.

Human pelvic extramural ganglion cells: a semiquantitative and immunohistochemical study.

In pelvic surgery, much attention is paid to nerve bundles but not to ganglion cells. Using serial section histology of 14 postmortem-treated hemipelvis (eight males, six females; mean, 79 years old), we examined the population number, distribution, and tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactivity (TH-IR; suggesting sympathetic neurons) of extramural pelvic ganglion cells. All pelvic ganglion cells were uniformly sized (25-30 microm) contrasting with small intramural rectal neurons. Abundant ganglion cells (30,000-140,000 unilaterally) existed not only along the pelvic viscera except for the rectum, but also along the hypogastric nerve, pelvic splanchnic nerve, pelvic plexus, and associated branches excluding those within the mesorectum. The intrapelvic ganglion cells outside the sympathetic trunk did not form macroscopically identifiable ganglia, but made small clusters (0.1-2.0 mm of maximum diameter) or were diffusely scattered within nerve bundles. More than half of these cells appeared TH-IR positive, although the positive/negative proportion differed between nerves and specimens. Greater numbers of ganglion cells were found in dorsosuperior sites (e.g., around the seminal vesicle) rather than in ventroinferior sites (e.g., along the urethra) in males, and vice versa in females. However, in total cell numbers, interindividual variations were evident rather than intergender difference. Due to significant interindividual variations in cell number, differences are likely to exist between patients in "resistance" to surgical stresses. We hypothesized that pelvic ganglion cells are liable to be damaged due to drying along the surgical margin, hypoxia in venous bleeding, pressure from surgical retractors, extension stress with taping and excess traction and/or direct injury with electrical scalpels.

Differential expression of calcium channels in sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic inputs to neurons in paracervical ganglia of guinea-pigs.

Neurons in pelvic ganglia receive nicotinic excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSPs) from sacral preganglionic neurons via the pelvic nerve, lumbar preganglionic neurons via the hypogastric nerve or both. We tested the effect of a range of calcium channel antagonists on EPSPs evoked in paracervical ganglia of female guinea-pigs after pelvic or hypogastric nerve stimulation. omega-Conotoxin GVIA (CTX GVIA, 100 nM) or the novel N-type calcium channel antagonist, CTX CVID (100 nM) reduced the amplitude of EPSPs evoked after pelvic nerve stimulation by 50-75% but had no effect on EPSPs evoked by hypogastric nerve stimulation. Combined addition of CTX GVIA and CTX CVID was no more effective than either antagonist alone. EPSPs evoked by stimulating either nerve trunk were not inhibited by the P/Q calcium channel antagonist, omega-agatoxin IVA (100 nM), nor the L-type calcium channel antagonist, nifedipine (30 microM). SNX 482 (300 nM), an antagonist at some R-type calcium channels, inhibited EPSPs after hypogastric nerve stimulation by 20% but had little effect on EPSPs after pelvic nerve stimulation. Amiloride (100 microM) inhibited EPSPs after stimulation of either trunk by 40%, while nickel (100 microM) was ineffective. CTX GVIA or CTX CVID (100 nM) also slowed the rate of action potential repolarization and reduced afterhyperpolarization amplitude in paracervical neurons. Thus, release of transmitter from the terminals of sacral preganglionic neurons is largely dependent on calcium influx through N-type calcium channels, although an unknown calcium channel which is resistant to selective antagonists also contributes to release. Release of transmitter from lumbar preganglionic neurons does not require calcium entry through either conventional N-type calcium channels or the variant CTX CVID-sensitive N-type calcium channel and seems to be mediated largely by a novel calcium channel.

Central representation of bladder and colon revealed by dual transsynaptic tracing in the rat: substrates for pelvic visceral coordination.

The neurocircuitry underlying regulation of bladder and distal colon function by Barrington's nucleus (the pontine micturition centre) was investigated in rats by identifying neurons which were transsynaptically labelled from these viscera, with pseudorabies virus (PRV) or genetically modified forms of PRV [PRV-beta-galactosidase (PRV-beta-Gal) and PRV-green fluorescent protein (PRV-GFP)]. PRV injection into the bladder or the colon of separate rats suggested an overlap in the distribution of bladder- and colon-related neurons in Barrington's nucleus, as well as a topographical arrangement whereby dorsal neurons were bladder-related and ventral neurons were colon-related. In rats injected with PRV-beta-Gal into one viscera and PRV-GFP into another, neurons in the major pelvic ganglion and lumbosacral spinal cord were primarily single-labelled at relatively early survival times. With longer survival times many double-labelled neurons (>70%) appeared in Barrington's nucleus, suggesting that individual Barrington's nucleus neurons are synaptically linked to preganglionic parasympathetic neurons which independently innervate the colon or the bladder. In addition to these dual-labelled neurons, Barrington's nucleus neurons which were single-labelled from either viscera were observed and these exhibited a viscerotopic organization consistent with the single-labelling studies. Together, these findings suggest the existence of three neuronal populations in Barrington's nucleus, one which is synaptically linked to both the bladder and the colon and the other two populations which are specifically linked to either viscera. These anatomical substrates may underlie the central coordination of bladder and colon function and play a role in disorders characterized by a coexistence of bladder and colonic symptoms.

Convergent responses of Barrington's nucleus neurons to pelvic visceral stimuli in the rat: a juxtacellular labelling study.

Barrington's nucleus impacts on bladder and distal colon function and relays pelvic visceral information to the forebrain. This study investigated processing of information from the bladder and the distal colon by Barrington's nucleus in the rat. The responses of individual Barrington's nucleus neurons to bladder and/or colon distention were characterized using extracellular recording and the recorded neurons were identified using juxtacellular labelling. Most neurons within Barrington's nucleus (79%) were activated by bladder distention, consistent with its role as a pontine micturition centre. Although no neurons were selectively responsive to colon distention, the majority of bladder-responsive neurons (73%) were also activated by colon distention. In a second study, Barrington's nucleus neurons were characterized with respect to their response to colon distention and their immunoreactivity for the stress-related neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). Of 30 labelled neurons in the central part of Barrington's nucleus, 53% were activated by colon distention and 63% of these were CRF-ir. This is the first report demonstrating that Barrington's nucleus neurons are responsive to colon distention. The results provide evidence for convergence of information from the bladder and the colon onto individual Barrington's nucleus neurons. Taken with evidence that many Barrington's nucleus neurons are synaptically linked to the bladder and colon, the present study suggests a role for these neurons in coordinating peripheral parasympathetic and central responses to both viscera and implicate CRF as a neurotransmitter in this function. Dysfunctions in this circuit may underlie the coexistence of colon and bladder symptoms observed in functional bowel disorders.

Differences in the chemical coding of nerve fibres supplying major populations of neurons between the caudal mesenteric ganglion and anterior pelvic ganglion in the male pig.

The present study was designed to investigate and to compare the chemical coding of nerve fibres supplying major populations of neurons in the caudal mesenteric (CaMG) and anterior pelvic (APG) ganglion in juvenile male pigs (n=5) using double-labelling immunofluorescence. The co-existence patterns of some biologically active substances including tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) as well as vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), substance P (SP), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), Leu5-enkephalin (LENK) and serotonin (5-HT) were analysed under a confocal laser scanning microscope. Profound differences in the neurochemical features of the nerve terminals between the ganglia were observed. Moreover, there were also distinct differences in the chemical coding of nerve fibres associated with the particular populations and subpopulations of neurons within the ganglia. In both ganglia, nearly all adrenergic and cholinergic neurons were supplied with VAChT-positive nerve fibres (putative preganglionic fibres). However, in the CaMG, they were more numerous and, in contrast to the APG, many of them also stained for VIP. In the APG, a great number of nerve terminals expressed immunoreactivity to SP and CGRP (putative collaterals of sensory neurons). Interestingly, they densely supplied almost exclusively adrenergic neurons. SP-positive nerve fibres were moderate in number in the CaMG, but, in addition to VAChT-IR nerve terminals, the most numerous populations of nerve fibres in this ganglion were those expressing highly colocalized immunoreactivities to CGRP and LENK, and those which stained for 5-HT (putative processes of enteric neurons). However, these fibres supplied almost exclusively larger, intensely stained for TH and clustered adrenergic neurons. This diversity of the nerve terminals reflects the complexity of nerve circuits involved in the innervation of structures supplied by neurons in the porcine CaMG and APG. It also demonstrates the importance of nerve inputs for the proper function of autonomic neurons and thus their target tissues.

Changes in the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH), galanin (GAL), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and substance P (SP) in the uterine cervix-projecting neurons located in the lumbar paravertebral ganglia of the pig.

The uterine cervix-projecting neurons located in the lumbar paravertebral ganglia were identified by retrograde tracing. These contained immunoreactivity to TH and DBH. No immunoreactivity to GAL, VIP and SP was found in the neurons. Extirpation of the uterus reduced the expression of TH and induced the expression of GAL in the neurons. Expression of other substances studied was unchanged.

Macro and microstructural organization of the dog's caudal mesenteric ganglion complex (Canis familiaris-Linnaeus, 1758).

The caudal mesenteric ganglion (CMG) is located ventral to the abdominal aorta involving the initial portion of the caudal mesenteric artery. Its macro and microstructural organization was studied in 40 domestic dogs. From the CMG, there were three nerves: the main hypogastric, the left hypogastric and the right hypogastric. The main hypogastric nerve emits two branches: the left colonic nerve and the cranial rectal nerve. Afterwards they give rise to branches to the descending colon (colonic nerves) and rectum (rectal nerves). The cranial rectal nerve, and left and right hypogastric nerves were directed to the pelvic ganglia. The microscopic study permitted the observation of the histological organization of the CMG, which is a ganglionic complex composed of an agglomeration of ganglionic units. Each ganglionic unit is composed of three major cell types: principal ganglion neurones (PGNs), glial cells and small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells, and they were separated by nerve fibres, septa of connective tissue (types 1 and 3 collagen fibres), fibroblasts and intraganglionic capillaries. Hence, the ganglionic unit is the morphological support for the microstructural organization of the CMG complex. Further, each ganglionic unit is constituted by a cellular triad (SIF cells, PGN and glial cells), which is the cytological basis for each ganglionic unit.

Immunohistochemical characterisation of cholinergic neurons in the anterior pelvic ganglion of the male pig.

This study investigated immunohistochemical properties of cholinergic neurons in the anterior pelvic ganglion (APG) of juvenile male pigs (n=7). Cholinergic neurons were identified using antibodies against choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). Immunoblotting was applied to verify the specificity of ChAT-immunostaining. Western blotting performed on APG tissue homogenates detected single immunoreactive protein with a molecular weight matching that of ChAT (71.6 kDa). It was found that many APG neurons expressed immunoreactivity to ChAT or VAChT (40% and 39% of the neurons, respectively). The analysis of adjacent sections from the ganglion revealed complete colocalization of ChAT and VAChT in these nerve cells. Furthermore, virtually all the ChAT-positive neurons were tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-negative (non-adrenergic) but many of them displayed immunoreactivity to nitric oxide synthase (NOS), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y (NPY) or somatostatin (SOM). There were also single nerve cell bodies that stained for neither ChAT nor TH. The comparison of the adjacent sections revealed that NOS, VIP, NPY and SOM were simultaneously co-expressed in the majority of the cholinergic somata. ChAT- or VAChT-positive varicose nerve terminals supplied nearly all neuronal profiles within the ganglion often forming loose basket-like formations surrounding the particular nerve cell bodies. The present study for the first time has revealed that nearly all non-adrenergic neurons in the porcine APG are cholinergic in nature, i.e. express immunoreactivity for ChAT and VAChT. Considering a high coincidence between the chemical coding of non-adrenergic (cholinergic) nerve fibres supplying some porcine male reproductive organs described in earlier papers and that of cholinergic pelvic neurons found in this study it is further concluded that pelvic ganglia are probably the major source of cholinergic innervation for the porcine urogenital system.

Responses of thalamic neurons to input from the male genitalia.

There have been relatively few electrophysiological studies, in any species, describing the supraspinal processing of inputs from the male genital tract. The thalamus was the focus of the present study. In 11 urethan-anesthetized male rats, subregions of the thalamus were surveyed for neuronal responses to the search stimulus, bilateral electrical stimulation of the dorsal nerve of the penis (DNP). A total of 133 DNP-responsive neurons were found and further tested for degree of somatovisceral convergence from other peripheral structures. Histological reconstruction of the recording sites revealed that the penile-responsive neurons were distributed among various thalamic subregions. These thalamic subregions included the medial-dorsal nuclei and ventral and lateral thalamic subregions (majority of neurons responsive to both tactile and pinch stimulation of the penis) as well as intralaminar, posterior and reticular subregions (majority responsive to pinch only). Taken together, the data demonstrate the existence of thalamic neurons with inputs from the male genitalia with widespread somatovisceral convergence. These neurons likely contribute to the neural circuitries underlying various aspects of penile sensation associated with reproductive and nociceptive events.