Cholesterol values in free-ranging gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla and Gorilla beringei) and Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus).

Cholesterol concentrations in captive gorillas and orangutans vary widely within species and average approximately 244 mg/dl for gorillas and 169 mg/dl for orangutans as published previously. The International Species Inventory System reports higher concentrations of 275 and 199 mg/dl for gorillas and orangutans, respectively. It is unknown whether these values were typical, influenced by captive management, or both. To answer this question, banked serum samples from free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei), western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), and Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) were analyzed for total cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations. Mountain gorillas did not differ significantly from free-ranging western lowland gorillas in cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, indicating mountain gorilla values could be a model for western lowland gorillas. Captive gorilla total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in free-ranging groups. Triglyceride concentrations for captive gorillas were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the male mountain and western lowland gorillas, but they were not significantly different from the female mountain gorillas. Captive orangutan total cholesterol concentrations were only higher (P < 0.05) than the free-ranging female orangutans, whereas captive orangutan low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than both free-ranging male and female orangutans. Calculated and measured low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations were compared for all free-ranging animals and were significantly different (P < 0.05) for all groups, indicating Friedewald's equation for calculating low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not appropriate for use with nonfasted apes. The higher total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in captive apes may predispose them to cardiovascular disease and might be attributed to diets, limited energy expenditure, and genetics.

Health evaluation of free-ranging and semi-captive orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) in Sabah, Malaysia.

Baseline data on health of free-ranging wildlife is essential to evaluate impacts of habitat transformation and wildlife translocation, rehabilitation, and reintroduction programs. Health information on many species, especially great apes, is extremely limited. Between 1996 and 1998, 84 free-ranging orangutans captured for translocation, underwent a complete health evaluation. Analogous data were gathered from 60 semi-captive orangutans in Malaysia. Baseline hematology and serology; vitamin, mineral and pesticide levels; and results of health evaluations, including physical examination, provide a baseline for future monitoring. Free-ranging and semi-captive orangutans shared exposure to 11 of 47 viruses. The semi-captive orangutans had significantly higher prevalence of antibodies to adenovirus (P < 0.0005) and rota (SA 11) virus (P < 0.008). More free-ranging than semi-captive animals had antibodies to Japanese encephalitis virus (P < 0.08) and foamy virus (P = 0.05). Exposure to parainfluenza and langat viruses was detected exclusively in semi-captive animals and exposure to sinbis virus was only found in free-ranging orangutans. There was evidence of exposure to respiratory syncytial virus, coxsackie virus, dengue virus, and zika virus in both groups. Ebstein-Barr virus was ubiquitous in both groups. Prevalence of antibodies against mumps virus changed from 0% in 1996 to 45% in 1998. No antibodies were detected to many important zoonotic viral pathogens, including herpesvirus and hepatitis virus. Prevalence of Balantidium coli and Plasmodium pitheci infections and exposure to mycobacterium was higher in the semi-captive animals. Differences in exposure to pathogens between the groups may be due to environmental factors including differences in exposures to other species, habitat quality, nutritional status, and other potential stressors. Differences in health parameters between captive and free-ranging orangutans need to be considered when planning conservation areas, translocation procedures, and rehabilitation protocols. Because survival of the orangutan is linked to animal and ecosystem health, results of this study will assist wildlife conservation programs by providing baseline health information.

Characterization of a simian T-lymphotropic virus from a wild-caught orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus) from Kalimantan, Indonesia.

In a recent serological survey among 143 ex-captive orang-utans two individuals were found that reacted positive in an ELISA detecting antibodies which cross-react with human T-lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) antigens. Infection of both animals with an HTLV-I or simian T-lymphotropic virus (STLV)-like virus was confirmed by Western blot analysis. A third wild-caught animal, which was not part of the original serological survey, was also found to be infected with an HTLV-related virus in a diagnostic PCR assay and Western blot assay. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the 709 bp PCR fragment from the tax/rex region of the HTLV/STLV genome confirmed infection of orang-utans with an STLV similar to but clearly distinct from other Asian STLVs.

Comparison of arginase activity in red blood cells of lower mammals, primates, and man: evolution to high activity in primates.

Arginase activity in red blood cells (RBC) of various mammalian species including man was determined. In nonprimate species, the activity generally fell below the level of detectability of the assay: less than 1.0 mumol urea/g hemoglobin per hr. Activities in higher nonhuman primates were equal to or of the same order of magnitude as those in man (approximately 950 mumol/g hemoglobin per hr). RBC arginase deficiency with normal liver arginase activity has been shown to segregate as an autosomal codominant trait in Macaca fascicularis established and bred in captivity. This study confirms the presence of this polymorphism in wild populations trapped in several geographic areas and demonstrates the absence of immunologically cross-reactive material in the RBC of RBC arginase-deficient animals. These data when taken together suggest that the expression of arginase in RBC is the result of a regulatory alteration, has evolved under positive selective pressure, and is not an example of the vestigial persistence of an arcane function. The expression of arginase in the RBC results in a marked drop in the arginine content of these cells.

Chromosomes and spermatozoa of the great apes and man

The chromosome complement of four species phylogenetically related to man, the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus), the gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), and the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) have been analysed with chromosome banding techiniques and compared to the human chomosome complement. This has shown remarkable homologies between species, and presumed mechanism of chromosome evolution have been proposed. Chromosome heteromorphism in the great apes have been compared to those found in human populations, and most o them affected the distribution or the amount of constitutive heterochromatin and/or brilliantly fluorescent material, a situation comparable to man where such variation have been established as chromossome polymorphisms. However, a balanced polymorphic structural rearregement involving large segments of euchromatic material has been found in two populations of orangutan. This rearrangement consisted of two pericentric inversions, one inside the other, comprising an unusual kind of chromosome polymorphism in mammalian populations. Moreover, it showed that pericentric inversions, the most probable chromosome rearrangements in the phylogeny of the chromosome of man and the great apes, might not necessarialy be restricted by infertility barriers, but may spread successfully in the popluation. The patterns of late replication of the chromossome of the great apes and man have been compared, using BUrd as a thymidine substitute in the cell cycle. This has show remarkable similarities in the patters of the pattehumam of late replication between species, and, as in the human chromosome, most regions of late replication in the chromosome of the great apes corresponded to areas of positive G-banding...

Identification and quantitation of steroids in sulfate fractions from plasma of pregnant chimpanzee, orangutan, and rhesus monkey.

Steroids in the mono- and disulfate fractions from plasma of pregnant chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), and a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) were identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and quantitated by gas-liquid chromatography on open tubular glass capillary columns. Whereas the average total concentrations were 4-5 times lower, 2.3-5.5 mumol X 1(-1) vs. 10.7-19.8 mumol X 1(-1), the pattern of steroid sulfates in the chimpanzees and orangutans were very similar to that previously found in pregnant women. Twenty one steroids were identified. The 3 beta-hydroxy-5-ene steroids were the same as in humans. Saturated pregnane derivatives were predominant and increased with time during pregnancy. Four isomers each of 3-hydroxypregnan-20-one and pregnane-3,20 alpha-diol were found, having 3 alpha, 5 alpha, 3 beta, 5 beta, 3 alpha, 5 beta, and 3 beta, 5 alpha stereochemistry, respectively. The relative proportion of disulfates was slightly lower in the great apes (15-28% of the total steroid sulfates) than in humans (23-33%). The monosulfate of 5 beta-pregnane-3 alpha, 20 alpha-diol constituted 12-14% of the total in chimpanzees and 3-4% in orangutans and humans. The monosulfate of 5 alpha-pregnane-3 beta, 20 alpha-diol constituted 5-7% in chimpanzees and 11-16% in orangutans and humans, whereas the disulfate was relatively less abundant in the great apes, 4-8%, than in humans, 10-18%. Although difficult to quantitate accurately, the chromatograms indicated that the proportion of 3 beta, 5 beta-isomers was higher in great apes than in women. The presence of 5 alpha-pregnane-3 beta, 16 alpha, 20 alpha-triol and 5 alpha-pregnane-3 alpha, 20 alpha, 21-triol indicated that hydroxylations of steroid sulfates in the great apes were similar to those in pregnant women. The steroid sulfate pattern in the rhesus monkey was completely different, 3 beta-hydroxy-5-ene steroids constituting over 95% of the total. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate was by far the predominant steroid, followed by the disulfates of 5-androstene-3 beta, 17 beta-diol and 5-pregnene-3 beta, 20 alpha-diol and the monosulfate of 5-androstene-3 beta, 16 alpha, 17 beta-triol. The results are discussed in relation to previous knowledge of progesterone metabolism in different animal species. So far, great apes are the only species showing the same pattern of steroid sulfates in plasma as humans.

Evolution of butyrylcholinesterase in higher primates: an immunochemical study.

Serum butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE; EC 3.1.1.8) of man and the higher primates was tested enzymatically and immunochemically, with the aid of monoclonal antibodies (McAb) developed against the enzyme isolated from human blood. Enzyme activities showed great differences across species and among individuals, but all samples tested were dibucaine-sensitive. One McAb showed similar affinities for BuChE of each species, but another showed marked differences in affinity, preferring species in the order: man greater than chimpanzee = pygmy chimpanzee greater than gorilla much greater than orangutan greater than gibbon. We conclude that at least one epitope of BuChE underwent progressive modification during the later stages of primate evolution.

Genetic markers of immunoglobulins in the two orangutan subspecies and their hybrids.

Serum samples from 23 Pongo pygmaeus abelii, 4 Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus and 2 hybrids were tested for Gm (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 24, 28) and for Km (1) allotypes. All samples were negative for Gm (2, 3, 5, 6, 14, 16, 21, 28), Km (1) and positive for Gm (1, 15, 17, 24). The allotypes G3m (10, 11, 13) were simultaneously absent in all of the Bornean orangutans and present in all of the Sumatran orangutans. Moreover, the analysis of 8 Bm allotypes has shown that all the P. pygmaeus abelii and their hybrids only possess one Bm marker and that all the 4 P. pygmaeus pygmaeus are negative for all the antigens.

Serum dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity in non-human primates: phylogenetic and genetic implications.

1. Serum dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) activity is one to two orders of magnitude higher in man than in any other species previously studied. The high levels of human serum DBH are associated with the inherited allele DBHH. 2. DBH activity was measured in serum from gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, gibbons, rhesus monkeys and squirrel monkeys in an attempt to determine how recently in the course of evolution the allele DBHH had originated. 3. Of the non-human primates tested, only gorillas had high levels of serum DBH activity comparable to those found in man. 4. The genetic polymorphism responsible for evaluated serum DBH in man is probably of very recent evolutionary origin.