Long-term success rate of entropion surgery is equivalent in juvenile and adult dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To compare long-term outcomes of lower lid entropion surgery performed in juvenile dogs versus adult dogs and evaluate the success rate of temporary tacking procedures in dogs < 1 year of age. ANIMALS: 116 client-owned dogs. METHODS: A retrospective study was performed evaluating dogs younger than 3 years old diagnosed with primary lower lid entropion between 2010 and 2020. Recurrence of entropion following temporary tacking sutures was evaluated. Surgical outcomes were evaluated of entropion surgery in dogs < and > 1 year of age. RESULTS: 44 dogs with entropion (71 eyes) had a temporary tacking procedure. The entropion resolved in 36.6% of eyes, requiring no further therapy. The median age of dogs successfully treated with a temporary tacking procedure was younger than those that failed. Forty-seven dogs (75 eyes) had entropion surgery at maturity, and 52 dogs (79 eyes) were juvenile. Twenty-seven dogs had temporary tacking procedure prior to surgery, accounting for the difference in number. There was no statistically significant difference in the recurrence rate of entropion between eyes of adult (6/75 [8%]) and juvenile dogs (10/79 [12.7%]) following surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Entropion surgery in juvenile dogs is not associated with a higher risk of recurrence and need not be delayed until dogs are older than 1 year of age.

Lower lid entropion in dogs: A modified technique of the combined Hotz-Celsus and wedge resection procedure.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to describe a modification of the combined Hotz-Celsus and wedge resection technique for the treatment of lower lid entropion in dogs and evaluate its success rate. METHODS: To reduce tissue trauma, facilitate tissue handling and shorten the surgical time, shortening of the eyelid was performed by excising a rectangular piece of the eyelid margin only, in the central section, extending to but not below the first Hotz-Celsus incision. The eyelid margin surgical wound was then sutured before excision of the Hotz-Celsus crescent which had been surgically scored at the start of surgery. Records of 31 dogs were reviewed for signalment, outcome, need for further surgery, and follow up from 6 to 48 months after surgery. RESULTS: Sixty-one eyes with lower lid entropion were treated. The most common breeds were English bulldog and English cocker spaniel and the median age was 16 months. The success rate for a single entropion correction surgery was 98.4%. One eyelid required a second surgical correction and four eyelids of three large breed dogs had wound breakdown. CONCLUSIONS: This modified technique is successful at correcting lower eyelid entropion associated with overlong eyelid length in dogs while being technically easier to perform.

Neuromuscular blockade with atracurium for ophthalmic surgery in horses-Effects on surgical and anesthetic characteristics and recovery quality.

OBJECTIVE: To study the surgical, anesthetic and recovery qualities of horses receiving either a neuromuscular blocking agent (atracurium) or intravenous lidocaine (treatment groups A and L, respectively). ANIMALS STUDIED: A total of thirty horses presented for ocular surgery were used in this study. PROCEDURE: Horses were randomly assigned to receive either atracurium (group A) or a lidocaine constant rate infusion (group L). Surgical quality was graded on a scale from 1 (excellent)-5 (poor). While anesthetized, the heart rate, oxygen saturation and mean arterial blood pressure, and end-expiratory carbon dioxide and desflurane concentration were monitored and recorded every 5 minutes. Recovery was scored on a scale from 10 (best)-115 (worst). RESULTS: Horses in treatment group A needed significantly less desflurane then horses in treatment group L (p = 0.04). Horses in treatment group A had a significantly better surgery score of 1 (1-2) (median and range) then horses in treatment group L (2.5; 1-5) (p = 0.02). The quality of recovery was significantly better in horses in treatment group A compared with treatment group L, and horses needed significantly less time to reach the standing position. CONCLUSIONS: Atracurium and lidocaine CRI are safe methods of anesthesia for equine patients undergoing ocular surgery. Horses receiving atracurium needed less desflurane and had better surgery and recovery scores than horses receiving a lidocaine constant rate infusion.

Subconjunctival enucleation with orbital implant placement in standing horses: 20 cases (2014-2017).

OBJECTIVE: To develop a protocol for subconjunctival enucleation and orbital implant placement in standing horses and to document short- and long-term complications, cosmesis, and client satisfaction. ANIMALS: 20 horses with nonneoplastic ocular disease requiring enucleation. PROCEDURES: A standardized protocol of surgical suite cleaning, patient preparation, sedation, local nerve blocks, surgical procedure, and postoperative care was performed. Owners were required to provide follow-up information at 1 year after surgery during a phone questionnaire. Additionally, some owners provided follow-up information at 1.8 to 4 years postoperatively. RESULTS: 11 mares, 6 geldings, and 3 stallions with a mean age of 9 years (range, 0.5 to 25 years) were included in this study. Reasons for enucleation included corneal lacerations (n = 3), perforated ulcers (4), end-stage uveitis (7), fungal keratitis (3), endophthalmitis (1), glaucoma (1), and stromal abscess (1). The mean surgery time was 64 minutes (range, 50 to 83 minutes). The most common implant size used was 45-mm diameter (range, 43- to 47-mm diameter). Complications included mild postoperative colic (n = 4), incisional swelling (1), and drainage from the surgical site (1) that resolved without implant removal. One-year follow-up information was available for 19 of 20 horses. Fourteen owners were very satisfied and 5 owners were satisfied with the cosmetic appearance. One horse was lost to follow-up. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Subconjunctival enucleation and orbital implant placement in standing horses was a safe and efficient alternative to general anesthesia when a standardized perioperative protocol was used. No horse developed clinically relevant complications, and owner satisfaction and cosmesis were good.

Amniotic membrane grafting for traumatic complete spectaculectomy and keratomalacia in a Boelen's python (Simalia boeleni).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the surgical repair of traumatic complete spectaculectomy and keratomalacia in a snake. ANIMALS: A 10.5-year-old, female, Boelen's python (Simalia boeleni) was presented with iatrogenic, near-complete spectaculectomy associated with bacterial keratitis, keratomalacia, and hypopyon. PROCEDURES: Corneal samples for cytological evaluation and bacterial culture were collected. Following medical stabilization of the bacterial keratitis, a double-layered dry amniotic membrane graft was placed. The first amniotic membrane layer was placed over the cornea with the edges tucked under the peripheral remnants of the spectacle and secured in place with fibrin glue. The second amniotic membrane layer was placed over the entirety of the spectacle remnant and secured in place with a combination of fibrin glue and sutures. Topical and systemic antimicrobials, topical ophthalmic lubricants, and systemic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory therapy were administered postoperatively. RESULTS: Heterophilic keratitis was identified by cytology and Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus sciuri were cultured from the corneal samples. The amniotic membrane grafts remained in place for several weeks. At 4 months postoperatively, the spectacle was completely regenerated, the subspectacular space restored, and the cornea was transparent. Spectacular vascularization and fibrosis then slowly cleared over the following 6 months. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Amniotic membrane grafting with fibrin glue is a relatively simple and effective surgical method to reconstruct extensive defects in the reptilian spectacle and to assist in the management of bacterial keratitis associated with spectacle avulsion.

Corneo-limbo-conjunctival transposition to treat deep and perforating corneal ulcers in dogs: A review of 418 eyes and corneal clarity scoring in 111 eyes.

PURPOSE: To report surgical and corneal clarity scores (CCSs) of corneo-limbo-conjunctival transpositions (CLCTs) in a large number of canine cases. METHODS: Retrospective review of records that underwent CLCT to repair deep ulcers or perforations between 2002 and 2018. Signalment, concurrent eye disease, additional procedures, pathogenesis, medication, graft orientation, follow-up, and CCSs were recorded. RESULTS: 418 eyes of 399 dogs were included. Brachycephalics were most commonly affected, comprising 325/418 (77.75%) of the eyes. The most commonly affected breeds were Pugs, Shih Tzus, Cavalier King Charles Spaniels, and French Bulldogs, with 116/418 (27.75%), 64/418 (15.31%), 34/418 (8.13%), and 34/418 (8.13%) ulcerated eyes, respectively. Mean age at surgery was 5.5 years (range 59 days-17.7 years), and median follow-up time was 100 days (range 3 days-7.64 years). The most common etiopathogenesis was spontaneous ulceration in 205/418 eyes (49.04%) of which 191 (93.17%) occurred in brachycephalics. Primary keratoconjunctivitis sicca affected 122/418 eyes (29.19%) and injury 39/418 eyes (9.33%). Mean ulcer width was 3.5 mm (0.5-10 mm). Success rate was 97.13% (406/418 eyes). Failure end points recorded included no menace response, secondary glaucoma, and endophthalmitis. Pre-existing perforation was found in 101/418 (24.16%) of the eyes and significantly increased failure rate (P < .001). The median CCS was G3 (G0-G4), which was lower for Pugs (G2). Graft orientation affected CCS, but did not reach statistical significance. CONCLUSION: The high success rate and CCS for CLCT in dogs make it a good technique to treat deep ulcers but a less desirable outcome is anticipated when treating perforations and Pugs.

Corneal epithelial inclusion cysts in 12 dogs (13 eyes) from 2010 to 2019: A multicentric retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this retrospective study was to review the clinical data and outcomes of patients that suffered corneal epithelial inclusion cysts (CEIC). Animals studied Thirteen eyes from 12 dogs from multiple private practices in France and Belgium, with a strong clinical of CEIC were included in the study. RESULTS: The mean age of affected dogs was 9 years. There were 9 females and 3 males. Two out of 12 dogs were Shih Tzus. Where identified, etiology was traumatic. Eleven dogs were affected unilaterally, 1 bilaterally. The cysts were single, bi-lobulated, or tri-lobulate, and cyst size ranged from 1 to 6 mm in diameter. Keratectomy alone was performed in seven cases, in conjunction with a conjunctival graft in three cases, a porcine small intestine mucosa graft in two cases, or an amniotic membrane graft in one case. Histopathologic findings were consistent in all eyes with a cyst located in the corneal stroma, composed of a nonkeratinized squamous epithelium delineating a lumen filled with neutrophils and desquamated epithelial cells. Surgery was curative in all cases but one, where the removal was incomplete and recurrence occurred several weeks after the surgery. CONCLUSION: Corneal epithelial inclusion cysts is a rare condition, secondary to corneal trauma, which can be treated successfully with conventional keratectomy alone or in conjunction with graft procedures.

Incidence and risk factors for surgical glove perforation in small animal ophthalmic surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the incidence of perforation of surgical gloves and identify associated risk factors that contribute to glove perforation in small animal ophthalmic surgery. STUDY DESIGN: Observational cohort study. SAMPLE POPULATION: Surgical gloves (n = 2000) collected following 765 small animal ophthalmic procedures. METHODS: All the gloves were tested for perforation at the end of the procedure using a water leak test. The potential risk factors for glove perforation were recorded, and associations between these risk factors and perforation were explored using univariable (Fisher's exact test) and mixed effect logistic regression analysis. Results were considered significant if P < .05. RESULTS: Glove perforation was detected in 6% of procedures. Glove perforation was 1.97 (95% CI: 0.98-4.22) times more likely in extraocular than in intraocular surgeries (7.3% vs 3.9%; P = .0462). The incidence of perforations was not statistically different between main and assistant surgeon (P = .86). No significant association was found between the risk of glove perforation and duration of the procedure (P = .13). Perforation of the nondominant hand was 2.6 (95% CI: 1.38-4.98) times more likely than the dominant hand (74% vs 26%; P = .0028). Only 22% of the perforations were detected intraoperatively. Multivariable analysis identified only extraocular surgery as a risk factor for perforations. CONCLUSIONS: There is a low incidence of glove perforation in small animal ophthalmic surgery, but extra care of the nondominant hand is required, especially during extraocular procedures.

Evaluation of partial tarsal plate excision using a transconjunctival approach for the treatment of distichiasis in dogs.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the clinical outcome, possible complications, and recurrence rate of distichiasis in dogs treated with partial tarsal plate excision (PTPE) technique using a transconjunctival approach. METHODS: Retrospective study including 17 client-owned canine patients affected with distichiasis and presenting with associated clinical signs (ie, blepharospasm, epiphora, chronic keratoconjunctivitis, or corneal ulceration) that underwent surgical removal of the aberrant lashes using a PTPE technique between January 2018 and February 2019. Data collected included breed, age, sex, affected eyelid(s), number of distichia, and tear film breakup time (TBUT). Resected cilia-bearing tarsoconjunctival strips were submitted for histopathological analysis. RESULTS: Thirty eyes (52 eyelids) from 17 dogs were included in the study. The median age was 688 days (range 118-4243 days). A successful outcome, defined as complete resolution of clinical signs attributable to the distichia, occurred in all eyes after a single procedure, with a mean follow-up time of 239 days (range 69-480 days). Appearance of new distichia occurred in 14/30 eyes (46.3%), and of these, three eyes needed a new PTPE procedure. Recurrence of the distichia only occurred in one eye (3.3%) which was asymptomatic. Following surgery, TBUT decreased below the normal value in 7/24 eyes (29.1%) although none developed clinical signs of qualitative tear film deficiency. Post-operative complications included trichiasis and cicatricial entropion, which developed in two eyes (6.6%), and these were successfully managed with corrective eyelid surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Partial tarsal plate excision, using a transconjunctival approach, had an excellent clinical outcome with a low incidence of complications.

Use of four-layer porcine small intestinal submucosa alone as a scaffold for the treatment of deep corneal defects in dogs and cats: preliminary results.

BACKGROUND: To describe the efficacy of four-layer porcine small intestinal submucosa (Vetrix BioSIS plus+) as single scaffold for the treatment of deep corneal lesions in dogs and cats. METHODS: 10 dogs and 3 cats with deep or full thickness corneal defects were treated surgically with BioSIS plus graft. Corneal transparency scores and vision were evaluated. RESULTS: Lesions in dogs were four perforations, three descemetoceles, two limbal melanocytomas and one deep corneal ulcer. In cats, there were one limbal melanocytoma and two perforations. The average length of the follow-up was 86 days. In all, 12 out of 13 eyes treated were visual at last recheck (92.3 per cent). The scars were mild eight cases (66.7 per cent), but denser in four cases (33.4 per cent). Complication were partial collagenolysis in three cases (25 per cent), which resolved with medical therapy, mild corneal pigmentation in one case (8.4 per cent) and anterior synechia in one case (8.4 per cent). One case experienced severe collagenolysis and was enucleated 21 days postoperatively. CONCLUSIONS: Four-layer porcine SIS graft was successfully used for surgical treatment of deep corneal lesions in selected corneal diseases in a small series of dogs and cats, with good results in terms of mechanic support and corneal transparency.

Prognostic indicators and outcome in dogs undergoing temporary tarsorrhaphy following traumatic proptosis.

PURPOSE: Retrospectively evaluate prognostic indicators and outcome in dogs undergoing temporary tarsorrhaphy following traumatic proptosis. METHODS: Medical records (2004-2017) were reviewed for signalment, cause and duration of proptosis, and clinical findings on admission. The operating faculty member, post-operative medications, and ophthalmic findings at last recheck were recorded. Owners of dogs with blinded eyes were surveyed regarding final outcome and satisfaction. Data were analyzed using Fisher's exact, Likelihood ratio, and Mann-Whitney tests. RESULTS: At last recheck, 17.5 ± 7.3 (mean ± SD) days post-operatively, vision was present in 12/43 eyes (28%). Vision at last recheck was not correlated with breed, cause or duration of proptosis, or post-operative medications (P > .05), but was correlated with presence of direct and indirect pupillary light reflexes (PLRs) on admission (P = .001 and .02, respectively), and with assessment and surgery performed by veterinary ophthalmologists rather than surgery or emergency personnel (P = .015). Mean satisfaction scores (graded 0-10) of 22 owners contacted 59.6 ± 48.2 months after last recheck were 7.8 ± 2.6 (n = 6), 5.7 ± 4.9 (n = 3), and 8.8 ± 1.3 (n = 13) for dogs with phthisical eyes, eyes requiring long-term medications, and blind but otherwise normal eyes, respectively (P = .284). CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to previous studies, breed, and cause and duration of proptosis, did not significantly affect outcome. Testing of direct and indirect PLR is a simple and significant prognostic indicator. Patients assessed and operated by a veterinary ophthalmologist have better prognosis.

Treatment of prolapsed gland and cartilage deformity of the nictitating membrane with pocket technique and chondrectomy alone, or combined with a wedge conjunctivectomy: 132 dogs (1998-2018).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the results obtained using Morgan pocket technique and chondrectomy (MPTC) alone, or combined with a wedge conjunctivectomy (MPTC + WC) for the treatment of prolapsed gland associated with cartilage deformity of the nictitating membrane (PGCD) in dogs. PROCEDURE: Medical records of dogs diagnosed with PGCD that received a MPTC or MPTC + WC were reviewed between 1998 and 2018. Success rate was defined by lack of recurrence of the prolapsed gland with a minimum of 6 months follow-up. Histological examination of the excised cartilage was performed in 13 eyes. RESULTS: A total of 132 dogs (181 eyes) met the inclusion criteria. Median follow-up time was 25 months (range, 6-166 months). MPTC was used in 131 eyes with 91.6% success rate. MPTC + WC was used in 50 eyes with 100% success rate. Postoperative complications occurred in 6.9% and 4%, respectively, for MPTC and MPTC + WC, including lacrimal cysts (8 eyes) or corneal erosion (3 eyes). Recurrence and complications rates were significantly lower using MPTC + WC compared with MPTC in the giant breed dogs (P = .019 and P = .002, respectively), but not in the overall study population (P = .328 and P = .290, respectively). Histological cartilage anomalies were noted in 2/13 specimens from chronic PGCD. CONCLUSIONS: MPTC + WC offers a good therapeutic option for giant breed dogs with PGCD. The combined technique provides a good apposition and mobility of the nictitating membrane onto the ocular surface and potentially reduces the risk of recurrence in these giant canine breeds.

Surgical management of bilateral, upper and lower eyelid entropion in 27 Shar Pei dogs, using the Stades forced granulation procedure of the upper eyelid only.

Aims: To evaluate the outcome of surgical management of entropion of the upper and lower eyelids in Shar Pei dogs which had previously undergone temporary palpebral tacking, using the Stades forced granulation procedure of the upper eyelid only.Methods: Medical records were retrospectively searched to identify Shar Pei dogs referred for bilateral entropion of both the lower and upper eyelids, and that were treated with the forced granulation procedure of the upper eyelid only. Dogs were included if they had previously undergone unsuccessful temporary palpebral tacking and had at least three follow-up examinations in the 30 days following surgery.Results: Twenty-seven Shar Pei dogs with a median age of 7.9 (min 4, max 24) months were included in the study. Before surgery, all dogs showed signs of severe ocular discomfort with bilateral keratitis and visual deficit due to blepharospasm, enophthalmos and protrusion of the third eyelid. In 13/54 eyes, keratitis was associated with a corneal ulcer. When re-examined 4 weeks after surgery, correction of the upper eyelid entropion and associated trichiasis resolved ocular signs in 50/54 eyes. Mild bilateral lower entropion remained in two dogs postoperatively, which underwent revision surgery with the Hotz-Celsus technique. There were no cases of long-term recurrence of entropion or ocular irritation in the 38 eyes (19 dogs) which were re-examined 1 year after surgery.Conclusion and clinical relevance: The forced granulation procedure performed on the upper eyelid only was effective for correction of entropion in the Shar Pei dogs included in this study. In our experience, it is preferable to operate on the upper eyelid alone, rather than attempting to correct upper and lower entropion during the same surgical operation. The dog can then be reassessed a few weeks later to determine whether the lower entropion is anatomical or secondary to the severe blepharospasm resulting from the painful ocular irritation.

Use of atracurium and its reversal with neostigmine in 14 pet rabbits undergoing ophthalmic surgery: a retrospective study.

The objective of this retrospective study was to report the clinical use of atracurium and its reversal with neostigmine in pet rabbits. The medical records of 14 rabbits undergoing anaesthesia for ophthalmic surgery were located through a search of the hospital's database. Demographic data and data pertaining to the use of the neuromuscular blocker and its reversal were analysed. After intravenous administration of 0.44±0.4 mg/kg atracurium (total dose), 11 rabbits experienced at least one of the following cardiovascular responses: hypotension, defined as systolic arterial pressure less than 75 mmHg (n=6), hypotension with decreased heart rate (HR) (n=1), hypotension with increased HR (n=1), decreased arterial blood pressure (ABP) without hypotension (n=6), decreased ABP with decreased HR (n=1), or increased HR (n=2, ABP reading could not be taken). Two of these 11 rabbits also experienced severe intraoperative hypothermia. The neuromuscular block was monitored with a train-of-four nerve-stimulation pattern, and reversed, with intramuscular 0.01-0.045 mg/kg neostigmine and 0.01-0.02 mg/kg glycopyrronium, after the return of at least two out of four muscular twitches following nerve stimulation. Decrease in ABP and possibly hypothermia are likely intraoperative complications when clinical doses of atracurium are administered to pet rabbits. Measures should be taken to detect their occurrence in order to treat them promptly.

Ultrasound-guided posterior extraconal block in the dog: anatomical study in cadavers.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a novel ultrasound-guided posterior extraconal block in the dog. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective experimental cadaveric study. ANIMALS: A total of 13 Beagle Cross cadaver heads. METHODS: After describing the ultrasound bony landmarks and posterior extraconal local regional technique in one head, 12 heads were used to evaluate the spreading of contrast and evaluate potential complications. A 5-8 MHz microconvex ultrasound probe was positioned caudal to the orbital ligament, with the beam orientated transversely, and then tilted caudally until the orbital fissure was visualized. After identifying the bony structures consistent with the orbital fissure, a needle was advanced using an in-plane technique and 0.5 mL of a 50:50 mixture of iohexol and methylene blue was injected. Computed tomography (CT) and dissection were used to evaluate successful injections and potential complications. The injection was considered successful if radiopaque contrast medium was 5 mm from the orbital fissure. Potential complications were defined as the presence of radiopaque contrast within the globe or the intracalvarial tissues. RESULTS: The CT images confirmed contrast at the target site in 15/24 (63%) of the injections. Only two injections were found in the temporalis muscle; the rest of the injections were located in the extraconal space. No potential complications such as intracranial spreading of contrast, intravascular or intraocular injection were found. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The technique can deliver contrast close to the main nerves which provide sensory and motor innervation to the eye. Further studies are needed to evaluate this technique in clinical cases.

Evaluation of transconjunctival thermal electrocautery for treatment of canine distichiasis: 88 eyelids (2013-2016).

OBJECTIVE: To describe a successful, simple treatment for canine distichiasis. ANIMALS STUDIED: Client-owned dogs presenting to Veterinary Specialty and Emergency Center, Levittown, Pennsylvania. PROCEDURE: Retrospective analysis of medical records for canine patients that underwent transconjunctival thermal electrocautery treatment (TCEC) for distichiasis alone or with concurrent eyelid surgery between 2013 and 2016. Fifty eyes of 26 dogs (n = 88 eyelids) were included in the study. Sixty-five eyelids (74%) were treated for distichia only, while 23 eyelids (26%) underwent concurrent eyelid surgery. Successful treatment was defined as resolution of clinical signs attributable to distichiasis. Forty-eight of 50 eyes (96%) were successfully treated with a single TCEC treatment (mean follow-up 187 ± 222 days). Sixty-one of 88 eyelids (69%) had no distichia at any follow-up time. Twenty-two eyelids (25%) had recurrence at or near a previously treated site (mean 150 ± 152 days). Of the eyes with recurrent distichia, all but 2 (91%) remained asymptomatic, requiring no further treatment. One dog with extensive TCEC treatment had significant recurrence on all eyelids requiring retreatment that resulted in focal entropion of 1 eyelid. Transient eyelid margin pigment loss and mild-to-moderate eyelid swelling were noted in all treated eyelids postoperatively. Suspected treatment site infection occurred 2 days postoperatively in 2/50 eyes (4%) of 1 patient. Two of 10 eyes (20%) with extensive eyelid treatment developed qualitative tear film deficiency OU (554 days postoperatively) and responded to topical tear stimulant therapy. CONCLUSION: TCEC is a successful, simple treatment for canine distichiasis.

A review of ophthalmic local and regional anesthesia in dogs and cats.

OBJECTIVE: Orbital and globe surgeries are commonly performed in companion animals and are considered to cause moderate to severe pain. Regional anesthesia techniques can provide complete sensory blockade, analgesia for painful procedures and improve surgical conditions. The purpose of this review is to summarize local and regional anesthesia techniques for ophthalmic surgery in dogs and cats with emphasis on veterinary publications in the past 12 years. DATABASES USED: Review of the literature was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar. The search terms were 'ophthalmic regional anesthesia', 'retrobulbar anesthesia', 'peribulbar anesthesia', 'sub-Tenon's anesthesia', 'intracameral anesthesia', 'eye infiltration', 'dogs' and 'cats'. Further studies and reports were obtained from the reference lists of the retrieved papers. In addition, related veterinary anatomy, ophthalmology and regional anesthesia books were reviewed. CONCLUSIONS: Reported techniques include regional techniques such as retrobulbar anesthesia, peribulbar anesthesia and sub-Tenon's anesthesia, and local techniques such as eyelid and conjunctival infiltration, intracameral anesthesia, splash block and insertion of intraorbital absorbable gelatin sponge infused with local anesthetic. Administration guidelines, indications and contraindications, and complications of each technique are discussed. Regional anesthesia techniques were reported to be effective during ophthalmic surgeries and are recommended for use as part of the anesthetic regimen and pain management in animals. However, the veterinary literature is still lacking controlled clinical trials and adverse events reports; therefore, there is very little evidence for choosing one technique over another.

Factors associated with postoperative complications in healthy horses after general anesthesia for ophthalmic versus non-ophthalmic procedures: 556 cases (2012-2014).

OBJECTIVE To compare complications between healthy horses undergoing general anesthesia for ophthalmic versus non-ophthalmic procedures and identify potential risk factors for the development of complications. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 502 horses (556 anesthetic procedures). PROCEDURES Medical records from January 2012 through December 2014 were reviewed to identify horses undergoing general anesthesia. Signalment, body weight, drugs administered, patient positioning, procedure type (ophthalmic, orthopedic, soft tissue, or diagnostic imaging), specific procedure, procedure time, anesthesia time, recovery time, recovery quality, and postoperative complications were recorded. RESULTS Patients underwent general anesthesia for ophthalmic (n = 106), orthopedic (246), soft tissue (84), diagnostic imaging (110), or combined (10) procedures. Mean procedure, anesthesia, and recovery times were significantly longer for patients undergoing ophthalmic versus non-ophthalmic procedures. Excluding diagnostic imaging procedures, there was a significant positive correlation between surgery time and recovery time. Within ophthalmic procedures, surgery time, anesthesia time, and recovery time were significantly greater for penetrating keratoplasty versus other ophthalmic procedures. There was a significantly higher rate of postoperative colic following penetrating keratoplasty, compared with all other ophthalmic procedures. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that in healthy horses, duration of general anesthesia should be minimized to decrease the risk of postanesthetic complications. Judicious use of orally administered fluconazole is recommended for horses undergoing general anesthesia. For horses undergoing a retrobulbar nerve block during general anesthesia, use of the lowest effective volume is suggested.

Modified brow suspension technique for the treatment of pseudoptosis due to redundant frontal skin in the dog: a retrospective study of 25 cases.

PURPOSE: To describe the outcome of modified brow suspension technique for the treatment of upper eyelid pseudoptosis in canine patients with redundant frontal skin folds. METHODS: Medical records from 1999 to 2015 were retrospectively reviewed. Only dogs that underwent modified brow suspension for treating bilateral pseudoptosis were included in the study. Recorded data included breed, age, gender, main ophthalmic complaint, ocular findings, suture material used for brow suspension, number of slings placed, postoperative treatment, complications, follow-up time, and outcome. RESULTS: Twenty-five adult dogs of different gender and breed fulfilled the inclusion criteria, with the Shar-Pei being overrepresented (19/25;76%). The main complaint at first presentation was mucopurulent discharge (10/25;40%) and blepharospasm (10/25;40%). Concurrent corneal disease was diagnosed in 47 eyes (47/50;94%). Monofilament polyamide was the most frequently used suture material (46/50;92%). Number of slings placed varied, with one in two eyes (4%), two in 28 eyes (56%), three in 17 eyes (34%), and four in three eyes (6%). Complications were seen in three eyes (6%): suture rupture (one eye; 2%) and skin abscess (two eyes; 4%). Mean follow-up time was 17.6 months (1-84 months), with no cases of fold dermatitis or dermatologic disease observed within this period. Good esthetic and functional outcomes were obtained in 47 eyes at first intervention (97%) and in all patients after re-intervention. CONCLUSIONS: The modified brow suspension technique described offers a surgical alternative for dogs with pseudoptosis secondary to redundant frontal skin folds that potentially reduces anesthetic time and facial changes.