Low EGR1 expression predicts poor prognosis in clear cell renal cell carcinoma.

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is resistant to conventional therapy due to the deletion of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) gene, and novel treatment options are urgently needed. Here, using tissue microarray analysis of 445 cancer tissues and 326 adjacent normal renal tissues obtained from patients with ccRCC, we present the early growth response-1 (EGR1) protein levels are significantly decreased in ccRCC cancer tissues. Consistently, the EGR1 mRNA expression also decreased in cancer tissues based on the transcriptomic data for 599 tumor and normal samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas. Moreover, Patients with ccRCC presenting low EGR1 expression are more prone to exhibit metastasis and a poor prognosis than those with high EGR1 expression. By multivariate Cox regression analysis, EGR1 is determined to serve as an independent prognostic factor for patients with ccRCC. Further cellular biochemical function analyses show that EGR1 may inhibit proliferation, invasion and metastasis of ccRCC. These findings will deepen our understanding of EGR1 function and shed light on precise treatment for ccRCC patients.

CIDEC silencing attenuates diabetic nephropathy via inhibiting apoptosis and promoting autophagy.

OBJECTIVE: The role of cell death-inducing DFF45-like effector C (CIDEC) in insulin resistance has been established, and it is considered to be an important trigger factor for the progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN). We intend to explore whether CIDEC plays an important role in the regulation of DN and its potential mechanism. METHODS: High-fat diet and low dose streptozotocin were used to establish type 2 diabetic rat model. We investigate the role of CIDEC in the pathogenesis and process of DN through histopathological analysis, western blot and gene silencing. Meanwhile, the effect of CIDEC on renal tubular epithelial cells stimulated by high glucose was also verified. RESULTS: DM group exhibited glucose and lipid metabolic disturbance, with hypertrophy of kidneys, damaged renal function, increased apoptosis, decreased autophagy, glomerulosclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. CIDEC gene silencing improved metabolic disorder and insulin resistance, alleviated renal hypertrophy and renal function damage, decreased glomerular and tubular apoptosis, increased autophagy and inhibited renal fibrosis. At the cellular level, high glucose stimulation increased CIDEC expression in renal tubular epithelial cells, accompanied by increased apoptosis and decreased autophagy. CIDEC gene silencing can improve autophagy and reduce apoptosis. At the molecular level, CIDEC gene silencing also decreased the expression of early growth response factor (EGR)1 and increased the expression of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL). CONCLUSION: CIDEC gene silencing may delay the progression of DN by restoring autophagy activity and inhibiting apoptosis with the participation of EGR1and ATGL.

Taking advantage of fear generalization-associated destabilization to attenuate the underlying memory via reconsolidation intervention.

Upon retrieval, an aversive memory can undergo destabilization and reconsolidation. A traumatic-like memory, however, may be resistant to this process. The present study sought to contribute with a strategy to overcome this potential issue by investigating whether generalized fear retrieval is susceptible to destabilization-reconsolidation that can be pharmacologically modified. We hypothesized that exposure to a context that elicits moderate generalization levels would allow a malleable memory state. We developed a fear conditioning protocol in context A (cxt-A) paired with yohimbine administration to promote significant fear to a non-conditioned context B (cxt-B) in rats, mimicking the enhanced noradrenergic activity reported after traumatic events in humans. Next, we attempted to impair the reconsolidation phase by administering clonidine (CLO) immediately after exposure to cxt-A, cxt-B, or a third context C (cxt-C) neither conditioned nor generalized. CLO administered post-cxt-B exposure for two consecutive days subsequently resulted in decreased freezing levels in cxt-A. CLO after cxt-B only once, after cxt-A or cxt-C in two consecutive days, or independently of cxt-B exposures did not affect fear in a later test. A 6-h-delay in CLO treatment post-cxt-B exposures produced no effects, and nimodipine administered pre-cxt-B exposures precluded the CLO action. We then quantified the Egr1/Zif268 protein expression following cxt-B exposures and CLO treatments. We found that these factors interact to modulate this memory destabilization-reconsolidation mechanism in the basolateral amygdala but not the dorsal CA1 hippocampus. Altogether, memory destabilization can accompany generalized fear expression; thus, we may exploit it to potentiate reconsolidation blockers' action.

Cav3.2 overexpression in L4 dorsal root ganglion neurons after L5 spinal nerve cutting involves Egr-1, USP5 and HMGB1 in rats: An emerging signaling pathway for neuropathic pain.

Overexpression of Cav3.2 T-type Ca2+ channels in L4 dorsal root ganglion (DRG) participates in neuropathic pain after L5 spinal nerve cutting (L5SNC) in rats. The L5SNC-induced neuropathic pain also involves high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a damage-associated molecular pattern protein, and its target, the receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE). We thus studied the molecular mechanisms for the L5SNC-induced Cav3.2 overexpression as well as neuropathic pain in rats by focusing on; 1) possible involvement of early growth response 1 (Egr-1), known to regulate transcriptional expression of Cav3.2, and ubiquitin-specific protease 5 (USP5) that protects Cav3.2 from proteasomal degradation, and 2) possible role of HMGB1/RAGE as an upstream signal. Protein levels of Cav3.2 as well as Egr-1 in L4 DRG significantly increased in the early (day 6) and persistent (day 14) phases of neuropathy after L5SNC, while USP5 protein in L4 DRG did not increase on day 6, but day 14. An anti-HMGB1-neutralizing antibody or a low molecular weight heparin, a RAGE antagonist, prevented the development of neuropathic pain and upregulation of Egr-1 and Cav3.2 in L4 DRG after L5SNC. L5SNC increased macrophages accumulating in the sciatic nerves, and the cytoplasm/nuclear ratio of immunoreactive HMGB1 in those macrophages. Our findings suggest that L5SNC-induced Cav3.2 overexpression in L4 DRG and neuropathic pain involves Egr-1 upregulation downstream of the macrophage-derived HMGB1/RAGE pathway, and that the delayed upregulation of USP5 might contribute to the persistent Cav3.2 overexpression and neuropathy.

Pramipexole Reduces zif-268 mRNA Expression in Brain Structures involved in the Generation of Harmaline-Induced Tremor.

Essential tremor is one of the most common neurological disorders, however, it is not sufficiently controlled with currently available pharmacotherapy. Our recent study has shown that pramipexole, a drug efficient in inhibiting parkinsonian tremor, reduced the harmaline-induced tremor in rats, generally accepted to be a model of essential tremor. The aim of the present study was to investigate brain targets for the tremorolytic effect of pramipexole by determination of the early activity-dependent gene zif-268 mRNA expression. Tremor in rats was induced by harmaline administered at a dose of 15 mg/kg ip. Pramipexole was administered at a low dose of 0.1 mg/kg sc. Tremor was measured by Force Plate Actimeters where four force transducers located below the corners of the plate tracked the animal's position on a Cartesian plane. The zif-268 mRNA expression was analyzed by in situ hybridization in brain slices. Harmaline induced tremor and increased zif-268 mRNA levels in the inferior olive, cerebellar cortex, ventroanterior/ventrolateral thalamic nuclei and motor cortex. Pramipexole reversed both the harmaline-induced tremor and the increase in zif-268 mRNA expression in the inferior olive, cerebellar cortex and motor cortex. Moreover, the tremor intensity correlated positively with zif-268 mRNA expression in the above structures. The present results seem to suggest that the tremorolytic effect of pramipexole is related to the modulation of the harmaline-increased neuronal activity in the tremor network which includes the inferior olive, cerebellar cortex and motor cortex. Potential mechanisms underlying the above pramipexole action are discussed.

Adolescent CB1 receptor antagonism influences subsequent social interactions and neural activity in female rats.

We previously demonstrated that repeated exposure to the CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist AM251 in adolescence (PND 30-44) increased social interactions in female rats when tested 48 h after the final exposure to the antagonist. Here, we investigated whether the increased sociality would be present after a longer drug washout period (5 days) in both male and female rats (experiment 1), and sought to identify candidate brain regions that may explain the observed differences in social behaviours between AM251 and vehicle-treated female rats (experiment 2). While drug-free, adolescent AM251 treatment increased social interactions in females and not in males. AM251 female rats had increased neural activity (as measured by the expression of early growth response protein-1; EGR-1) in the nucleus accumbens shell and cingulate gyrus of the medial prefrontal cortex, with no observed differences in EGR-1 expression in the dorsal hippocampus, nucleus accumbens core, or prelimbic and infralimbic subdivisions of the medial prefrontal cortex relative to vehicle rats. Together, these results demonstrate a sex-specific role of adolescent endocannabinoid signalling in the normative development of social behaviours and provide further support for adolescence as a vulnerable period for the effects of altered endocannabinoid signalling.

Impairment of DHA synthesis alters the expression of neuronal plasticity markers and the brain inflammatory status in mice.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a ω-3 fatty acid typically obtained from the diet or endogenously synthesized through the action of elongases (ELOVLs) and desaturases. DHA is a key central nervous system constituent and the precursor of several molecules that regulate the resolution of inflammation. In the present study, we questioned whether the impaired synthesis of DHA affected neural plasticity and inflammatory status in the adult brain. To address this question, we investigated neural and inflammatory markers from mice deficient for ELOVL2 (Elovl2-/- ), the key enzyme in DHA synthesis. From our findings, Elovl2-/- mice showed an altered expression of markers involved in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory formation such as Egr-1, Arc1, and BDNF specifically in the cerebral cortex, impacting behavioral functions only marginally. In parallel, we also found that DHA-deficient mice were characterized by an increased expression of pro-inflammatory molecules, namely TNF, IL-1ß, iNOS, caspase-1 as well as the activation and morphologic changes of microglia in the absence of any brain injury or disease. Reintroducing DHA in the diet of Elovl2-/- mice reversed such alterations in brain plasticity and inflammation. Hence, impairment of systemic DHA synthesis can modify the brain inflammatory and neural plasticity status, supporting the view that DHA is an essential fatty acid with an important role in keeping inflammation within its physiologic boundary and in shaping neuronal functions in the central nervous system.

Anticoagulant effect of wogonin against tissue factor expression.

Tissue factor (TF) is the primary cause of atherothrombosis, the rupture of atherosclerotic plaques with subsequent thrombosis, leading to acute cardiovascular events, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. Wogonin (Wog) is an active component of Scutellaria baicalensis, used for inflammatory diseases, atherosclerosis, and hyperlipidemia. The anticoagulant effect of Wog on TF expression remains unexplored. In this study, we have investigated the effects of Wog on TF gene expression and its underlying molecular mechanism in human vascular endothelial cells (ECs). We found that Wog dose-dependently inhibited PMA-enhanced TF mRNA, protein, and activity in ECs. This inhibition was attributed to its decreasing nuclear accumulations of transcription factors, phospho-c-Jun and early growth response-1(Egr-1), not nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), through blocking extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathways. Reduction by Wog of Egr-1 nuclear level and Egr-1/DNA binding activity was associated with its inhibition of Egr-1 de novo synthesis. Wog as well as inhibitors to ERK and JNK suppressed TF promoter activity and protein expression in reporter gene and Western blot analyses. Furthermore, it also exhibited anticoagulant function by inhibiting TF expression and activity in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)- and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated ECs and THP-1 cells. These results suggest that Wog inhibits ERK/Egr-1- and JNK/AP-1-mediated transactivation of TF promoter activity, leading to downregulation of TF expression and activity induced by inflammatory mediators. Wog targeting pathological TF expression without affecting its basal level may be a safer templet in the development of anticoagulant agent for cardiovascular thrombotic diseases related to atherothrombosis.

Rostrocaudal subregions of the ventral tegmental area are differentially impacted by chronic stress.

RATIONALE: The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is implicated in the pathophysiology of depression and addictive disorders and is subject to the detrimental effects of stress. Chronic stress may differentially alter the activity pattern of its different subregions along the rostrocaudal and dorsoventral axes, which may relate to the variable behavioral sensitivity to stress mediated by these subregions. OBJECTIVES: Here, chronic stress-exposed rats were tested for depressive-like reactivity. In situ hybridization for zif268 as a marker of neuronal activation was combined with in vivo single-unit recording of dopaminergic neurons to assess modifications in the activity of the rostral VTA (rVTA) and caudal VTA (cVTA). Changes in the expression of stress-responsive glucocorticoid receptors (GR) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were also assessed. RESULTS: Stress-induced anhedonia-like, hyper-anxious, and passive-like responding were associated with reductions in dopaminergic burst activity in the cVTA and an increase in local GABAergic activity, particularly in GABAA receptor sensitivity. On the other hand, stress increased single-spiking activity, burst activity, and zif268 mRNA levels in the rVTA, which were associated with increased glutamatergic tonus and enhanced GR and AMPA receptor (AMPAR) expression. rVTA and cVTA activity differentially correlated with sucrose preference and passivity measures. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate that the rVTA and cVTA respond differently to stress and suggest that while cVTA activity may be related to passivity-like states, the activity of both subregions appears to be related to anhedonia and the processing of incentive value. These region-dependent abnormalities indicate the multi-modular composition of the VTA, which could provide multiple substrates for different symptom features.

Involvement of CTCF in transcription regulation of EGR1 at early G1 phase as an architecture factor.

Early growth response 1 (EGR1) is a transcription factor and regulates cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. The expression of EGR1 is rapidly induced in response to several stimuli, and it activates the expression of downstream target genes involved in signaling cascades. EGR1 gene is also known to be transcribed in early G1 phase. However, the regulation of EGR1 transcription in early G1 phase is not clarified well. Here we found that CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF), a chromatin binding protein, is required to transcribe EGR1 gene at the onset of early G1 phase. We found that CTCF mediated the formation of higher-order chromatin structures among CTCF binding sites located in the EGR1 locus. Disruption of the CTCF-dependent higher-order chromatin structure using nuclease-dead Cas9 (dCas9)-mediated interference reduced the EGR1 transcription in early G1 phase. Collectively, we propose that CTCF has functional roles for the temporal expression of EGR1 in early G1 phase through regulation of higher-order chromatin structure organization.

Transcriptome Analysis of Ochratoxin A-Induced Apoptosis in Differentiated Caco-2 Cells.

Ochratoxin A (OTA), an important mycotoxin that occurs in food and animal feed, has aroused widespread concern in recent years. Previous studies have indicated that OTA causes nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity, immunotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. The intestinal toxicity of OTA has gradually become a focus of research, but the mechanisms underlying this toxicity have not been described. Here, differentiated Caco-2 cells were incubated for 48 h with different concentrations of OTA and transcriptome analysis was used to estimate damage to the intestinal barrier. Gene expression profiling was used to compare the characteristics of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). There were altogether 10,090 DEGs, mainly clustered into two downregulation patterns. The Search Tool for Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING), which was used to analyze the protein-protein interaction network, indicated that 24 key enzymes were mostly responsible for regulating cell apoptosis. Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis was used to validate eight genes, three of which were key genes (CASP3, CDC25B, and EGR1). The results indicated that OTA dose-dependently induces apoptosis in differentiated Caco-2 cells. Transcriptome analysis showed that the impairment of intestinal function caused by OTA might be partly attributed to apoptosis, which is probably associated with downregulation of murine double minute 2 (MDM2) expression and upregulation of Noxa and caspase 3 (CASP3) expression. This study has highlighted the intestinal toxicity of OTA and provided a genome-wide view of biological responses, which provides a theoretical basis for enterotoxicity and should be useful in establishing a maximum residue limit for OTA.

Induction of early growth response gene 1 (EGR1) by endoplasmic reticulum stress is mediated by the extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) arm of the MAPK pathways.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress activates three principal signaling pathways, collectively known as the unfolded protein response, leading to translational and transcriptional control mechanisms that dictate the cell's response as adaptive or apoptotic. The present study illustrates that for HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells the signaling pathways triggered by ER stress extend beyond the three principal pathways to include mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, leading to activation of transcription from the early growth response 1 (EGR1) gene. Analysis provided evidence for a SRC-RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK cascade mechanism that leads to enhanced phosphorylation of the transcription factor ELK1. ELK1 and serum response factor (SRF) are constitutively bound to the EGR1 promoter and are phosphorylated by nuclear localized ERK. The promoter abundance of both phospho-SRF and phopsho-ELK1 was increased by ER stress, but the SRF phosphorylation was transient. Knockdown of ELK1 had little effect on the basal EGR1 mRNA content, but completely blocked the increase in response to ER stress. Conversely, knockdown of SRF suppressed basal EGR1 mRNA content, but had only a small effect on the induction by ER stress. This research highlights the importance of MAPK signaling in response to ER stress and identifies ELK1 as a transcriptional mediator and the EGR1 gene as a target.

The effect of early growth response 1 on levels of Amyloid-ß 40 peptide in U87MG cells.

A recent study has shown that early growth response 1 (EGR1) plays a critical role in the ß-amyloid cascade and tau hypotheses. In addition, evidence has suggested that EGR1 can regulate levels of amyloid-beta peptides, key molecules in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, whether EGR1 is a deleterious or protective factor in the AD is still controversial. In this present study, we constructed an overexpression plasmid, CMV-EGFP-EGR1-Kanamycin, and transfected it into U87MG cells to investigate the effects of EGR1 expression on amyloid-ß (1-40) peptide (Aß40) levels. U87MG cells transfected by CMV-EGFP-EGR1-Kanamycin and CMV-EGFP-Kanamycin were assigned, respectively, to experimental and control groups. Fluorescence microscopy was used to observe transfection efficiencies of the plasmids after 6 hours. EGR1 messenger RNA levels were measured by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Aß40 secretion was analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Expression of the amyloid precursor protein, beta-secretase enzyme, and presenilin 1 proteins were analyzed by Western blot analysis. The results showed that EGR1 overexpression increased Aß40 secretion in vitro, possibly through increasing BACE1 expression. Based on these results, EGR1 might be a promising therapeutic target for the AD.

PR1P ameliorates neurodegeneration through activation of VEGF signaling pathway and remodeling of the extracellular environment.

Neurodegenerative diseases affect millions of people worldwide. Optic neuropathies are the most commonly occurring neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) degeneration. We recently reported that Prominin-1, a protein found on the surface of stem cells, interacts with VEGF and enhances its activity. VEGF is known to have various protective roles in the nervous system. Subsequently, we have developed a 12-mer peptide derived from Prominin-1, named PR1P, and investigated its effects on neuronal survival of damaged RGCs in a rat model of optic nerve crush (ONC). PR1P prevented RGC apoptosis resulting in improvement of retinal function in the rat ONC model. PR1P treatment significantly increased phosphorylation of ERK and AKT and expression its downstream proteins c-fos and Egr-1 in the retina. Additionally, PR1P beneficially increased the MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratio and promoted glial activation in the retina of ONC rats. Thus, PR1P displayed neuroprotective effects through enhanced VEGF-driven neuronal survival and reconstruction of the extracellular environment in ONC model. Our data indicate that PR1P may be a promising new clinical candidate for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

The endothelial tumor suppressor p53 is essential for venous thrombus formation in aged mice.

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in elderly people. Increased expression of tumor suppressor protein 53 (p53) has been implicated in vascular senescence. Here, we examined the importance of endothelial p53 for venous thrombosis and whether endothelial senescence and p53 overexpression are involved in the exponential increase of VTE with age. Mice with conditional, endothelial-specific deletion of p53 (End.p53-KO) and their wild-type littermates (End.p53-WT) underwent subtotal inferior vena cava (IVC) ligation to induce venous thrombosis. IVC ligation in aged (12-month-old) End.p53-WT mice resulted in higher rates of thrombus formation and greater mean thrombus size vs adult (12-week-old) End.p53-WT mice, whereas aged End.p53-KO mice were protected from vein thrombosis. Analysis of primary endothelial cells from aged mice or human vein endothelial cells after induction of replicative senescence revealed significantly increased early growth response gene-1 (Egr1) and heparanase expression, and plasma factor Xa levels were elevated in aged End.p53-WT, but not in End.p53-KO mice. Increased endothelial Egr1 and heparanase expression also was observed after doxorubicin-induced p53 overexpression, whereas p53 inhibition using pifithrin-α reduced tissue factor (TF) expression. Importantly, inhibition of heparanase activity using TF pathway inhibitor-2 (TFPI2) peptides prevented the enhanced venous thrombus formation in aged mice and restored it to the thrombotic phenotype of adult mice. Our findings suggest that p53 accumulation and heparanase overexpression in senescent endothelial cells are critically involved in mediating the increased risk of venous thrombosis with age and that heparanase antagonization may be explored as strategy to ameliorate the prothrombotic endothelial phenotype with age.

Retrieval of Inhibitory Avoidance Memory Induces Differential Transcription of arc in Striatum, Hippocampus, and Amygdala.

Similar to the hippocampus and amygdala, the dorsal striatum is involved in memory retrieval of inhibitory avoidance, a task commonly used to study memory processes. It has been reported that memory retrieval of fear conditioning regulates gene expression of arc and zif268 in the amygdala and the hippocampus, and it is surprising that only limited effort has been made to study the molecular events caused by retrieval in the striatum. To further explore the involvement of immediate early genes in retrieval, we used real-time PCR to analyze arc and zif268 transcription in dorsal striatum, dorsal hippocampus, and amygdala at different time intervals after retrieval of step-through inhibitory avoidance memory. We found that arc expression in the striatum increased 30 min after retrieval while no changes were observed in zif268 in this region. Expression of arc and zif268 also increased in the dorsal hippocampus but the changes were attributed to context re-exposure. Control procedures indicated that in the amygdala, arc and zif268 expression was not dependent on retrieval. Our data indicate that memory retrieval of inhibitory avoidance induces arc gene expression in the dorsal striatum, caused, very likely, by the instrumental component of the task. Striatal arc expression after retrieval may induce structural and functional changes in the neurons involved in this process.

Egr-1 increases angiogenesis in cartilage via binding Netrin-1 receptor DCC promoter.

BACKGROUND: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a joint disease characterized by degradation of cartilage. The etiology of OA is still unclear. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a key role of angiogenesis in the pathogenesis of OA and contributes to the angiogenesis of NT-1/DCC. Whether or not NT-1/DCC and VEGF interact in regulating angiogenesis of OA cartilage is not known. METHODS: Histological studies for CD34, VEGF, and safranin-O staining were performed to determine angiogenesis and cartilage tissue injury. ELISA indicated the level of pro-inflammation cytokines. Immunoblotting, immunoprecipitation, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) were performed to assay the expression and function of NT-1/DCC-VEGF signaling pathway. RESULTS: Our data indicated that VEGF expression was increased in cartilage tissue from OA rats, while the chondrocytes were disorganized, and cartilage degeneration was increasing in OA rats. The inflammation factors in articular cavity fluid were higher in the OA rats than in the sham. The protein expression of NT-1, DCC, and VEGF were increased in osteoarthritic cartilage. DCC was involved in the positive regulation of osteoarthritic angiogenesis by VEGF. Egr-1 expression was higher in OA rats than in sham rats. Egr-1 is a regulator of DCC promoter activity, and the binding is higher in OA rats than in sham rats. CONCLUSION: Our present study provides a mechanism by which Egr-1 induced angiogenesis via NT-1/DCC-VEGF pathway.

Effects of extracellular orotic acid on acute contraction-induced adaptation patterns in C2C12 cells.

Dietary administration of orotic acid (OA), an intermediate in the pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway, is considered to provide a wide range of beneficial effects, including cardioprotection and exercise adaptation. Its mechanisms of action, when applied extracellularly, however, are barely understood. In this study, we evaluated potential effects of OA on skeletal muscle using an in vitro contraction model of electrically pulse-stimulated (EPS) C2C12 myotubes. By analyzing a subset of genes representing inflammatory, metabolic, and structural adaptation pathways, we could show that OA supplementation diminishes the EPS-provoked expression of inflammatory transcripts (interleukin 6, Il6; chemokine (C-X-C Motif) ligand 5, Cxcl5), and attenuated transcript levels of nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 3 (Nr4A3), early growth response 1 (Egr1), activating transcription factor 3 (Atf3), and fast-oxidative MyHC-IIA isoform (Myh2). By contrast, OA had no suppressive effect on the pathogen-provoked inflammatory gene response in skeletal muscle cells, as demonstrated by stimulation of C2C12 myotubes with bacterial LPS. In addition, we observed a suppressive effect of OA on EPS-induced phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), whereas EPS-triggered phosphorylation/activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) was not affected. Finally, we demonstrate that OA positively influences glycogen levels in EP-stimulated myotubes. Taken together, our results suggest that in skeletal muscle cells, OA modulates both the inflammatory and the metabolic reaction provoked by acute contraction. These results might have important clinical implications, specifically in cardiovascular and exercise medicine.

Prefrontal Cortex Deep Brain Stimulation Improves Fear and Anxiety-Like Behavior and Reduces Basolateral Amygdala Activity in a Preclinical Model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is being investigated for a number of psychiatric indications, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Preclinical studies continue to be a cornerstone for the development of new DBS applications. We investigate whether DBS delivered to the infralimbic cortex (IL), a region involved in mechanisms of stress resiliency, may counter behavioral abnormalities in rats that present persistent extinction deficits and long-term anxiety after exposure to fear conditioning. Rats undergoing fear conditioning/extinction were segregated into weak and strong extinction groups (WE >70% or SE <30% of freezing during extinction). Following 2 weeks of DBS, animals were exposed to novel recall sessions and tested in the open field, novelty-suppressed feeding, and elevated plus maze. zif268 expression was measured in structures involved in mechanisms of fear and stress. In vivo electrophysiology was used to record activity from the basolateral amygdala (BLA). We found that DBS improved extinction deficits and anxiety-like behavior in WE animals, having no significant effects in SE rats. No major differences in absolute zif268 levels were recorded across groups. However, correlation between zif268 expression in the IL and BLA was disrupted in WE animals, a deficit that was countered by DBS treatment. Electrophysiology experiments have shown that DBS reduced BLA firing of both putative principal cells and interneurons in WE rats, with no significant differences being detected between SE and SE DBS animals. In summary, IL DBS mitigated fear, partially improved anxiety-like behavior, reversed neurocircuitry abnormalities, and reduced BLA cell firing in a preclinical model of PTSD.

VEGFC/VEGFR3 Signaling Regulates Mouse Spermatogonial Cell Proliferation via the Activation of AKT/MAPK and Cyclin D1 Pathway and Mediates the Apoptosis by affecting Caspase 3/9 and Bcl-2.

We have previously shown that the transcript levels of Vegfc and its receptor Vegfr3 were high in spermatogonia and extremely low in spermatocytes and spermatids. However, it remains unknown about the functions and the mechanisms of VEGFC/VEGFR3 signaling in regulating the fate determinations of spermatogonia. To this end, here we explored the role and signaling pathways of VEGFC/VEGFR3 by using a cell line derived from immortalized mouse spermatogonia retaining markers of mitotic germ cells, namely GC-1 cells. VEGFR3 was expressed in mouse primary spermatogonia and GC-1 cells. VEGFC stimulated the proliferation and DNA synthesis of GC-1 cells and enhanced the phosphorylation of PI3K-AKT and MAPK, whereas LY294002 (an inhibitor for AKT) and CI-1040 (an inhibitor for MAPK) blocked the effect of VEGFC on GC-1 cell proliferation. Furthermore, VEGFC increased the transcripts of c-fos and Egr1 and protein levels of cyclin D1, PCNA and Bcl-2. Conversely, the blocking of VEGFC/VEGFR3 signaling by VEGFR3 knockdown reduced the phosphorylation of AKT/MAPK and decreased the levels of cyclin D1 and PCNA. Additionally, VEGFR3 knockdown not only resulted in more apoptosis of GC-1 cells but also led to a decrease of Bcl-2 and promoted the cleavage of Caspase-3/9 and PARP. Collectively, these data suggested that VEGFC/VEGFR3 signaling promotes the proliferation of GC-1 cells via the AKT /MAPK and cyclin D1 pathway and it inhibits the cell apoptosis through Caspase-3/9, PARP and Bcl-2. Thus, this study sheds a novel insight to the molecular mechanisms underlying the fate decisions of mammalian spermatogonia.