Cryo-EM structure of the activated RET signaling complex reveals the importance of its cysteine-rich domain.

Signaling through the receptor tyrosine kinase RET is essential during normal development. Both gain- and loss-of-function mutations are involved in a variety of diseases, yet the molecular details of receptor activation have remained elusive. We have reconstituted the complete extracellular region of the RET signaling complex together with Neurturin (NRTN) and GFRα2 and determined its structure at 5.7-Å resolution by cryo-EM. The proteins form an assembly through RET-GFRα2 and RET-NRTN interfaces. Two key interaction points required for RET extracellular domain binding were observed: (i) the calcium-binding site in RET that contacts GFRα2 domain 3 and (ii) the RET cysteine-rich domain interaction with NRTN. The structure highlights the importance of the RET cysteine-rich domain and allows proposition of a model to explain how complex formation leads to RET receptor dimerization and its activation. This provides a framework for targeting RET activity and for further exploration of mechanisms underlying neurological diseases.

GFRA1: A Novel Molecular Target for the Prevention of Osteosarcoma Chemoresistance.

The glycosylphosphatidylinositol-linked GDNF (glial cell derived neurotrophic factor) receptor alpha (GFRA), a coreceptor that recognizes the GDNF family of ligands, has a crucial role in the development and maintenance of the nervous system. Of the four identified GFRA isoforms, GFRA1 specifically recognizes GDNF and is involved in the regulation of proliferation, differentiation, and migration of neuronal cells. GFRA1 has also been implicated in cancer cell progression and metastasis. Recent findings show that GFRA1 can contribute to the development of chemoresistance in osteosarcoma. GFRA1 expression was induced following treatment of osteosarcoma cells with the popular anticancer drug, cisplatin and induction of GFRA1 expression significantly suppressed apoptosis mediated by cisplatin in osteosarcoma cells. GFRA1 expression promotes autophagy by activating the SRC-AMPK signaling axis following cisplatin treatment, resulting in enhanced osteosarcoma cell survival. GFRA1-induced autophagy promoted tumor growth in mouse xenograft models, suggesting a novel function of GFRA1 in osteosarcoma chemoresistance.

Structure and biophysical characterization of the human full-length neurturin-GFRa2 complex: A role for heparan sulfate in signaling.

Neurturin (NRTN) provides trophic support to neurons and is considered a therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease. It binds to its co-receptor GFRa2, and the resulting NRTN-GFRa2 complex activates the transmembrane receptors rearranged during transfection (RET) or the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). We report the crystal structure of NRTN, alone and in complex with GFRa2. This is the first crystal structure of a GFRa with all three domains and shows that domain 1 does not interact directly with NRTN, but it may support an interaction with RET and/or NCAM, via a highly conserved surface. In addition, biophysical results show that the relative concentration of GFRa2 on cell surfaces can affect the functional affinity of NRTN through avidity effects. We have identified a heparan sulfate-binding site on NRTN and a putative binding site in GFRa2, suggesting that heparan sulfate has a role in the assembly of the signaling complex. We further show that mutant NRTN with reduced affinity for heparan sulfate may provide a route forward for delivery of NRTN with increased exposure in preclinical in vivo models and ultimately to Parkinson's patients.

Zebrafish GDNF and its co-receptor GFRα1 activate the human RET receptor and promote the survival of dopaminergic neurons in vitro.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a ligand that activates, through co-receptor GDNF family receptor alpha-1 (GFRα1) and receptor tyrosine kinase "RET", several signaling pathways crucial in the development and sustainment of multiple neuronal populations. We decided to study whether non-mammalian orthologs of these three proteins have conserved their function: can they activate the human counterparts? Using the baculovirus expression system, we expressed and purified Danio rerio RET, and its binding partners GFRα1 and GDNF, and Drosophila melanogaster RET and two isoforms of co-receptor GDNF receptor-like. Our results report high-level insect cell expression of post-translationally modified and dimerized zebrafish RET and its binding partners. We also found that zebrafish GFRα1 and GDNF are comparably active as mammalian cell-produced ones. We also report the first measurements of the affinity of the complex to RET in solution: at least for zebrafish, the Kd for GFRα1-GDNF binding RET is 5.9 µM. Surprisingly, we also found that zebrafish GDNF as well as zebrafish GFRα1 robustly activated human RET signaling and promoted the survival of cultured mouse dopaminergic neurons with comparable efficiency to mammalian GDNF, unlike E. coli-produced human proteins. These results contradict previous studies suggesting that mammalian GFRα1 and GDNF cannot bind and activate non-mammalian RET and vice versa.

RET recognition of GDNF-GFRα1 ligand by a composite binding site promotes membrane-proximal self-association.

The RET receptor tyrosine kinase is essential to vertebrate development and implicated in multiple human diseases. RET binds a cell surface bipartite ligand comprising a GDNF family ligand and a GFRα coreceptor, resulting in RET transmembrane signaling. We present a hybrid structural model, derived from electron microscopy (EM) and low-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) data, of the RET extracellular domain (RET(ECD)), GDNF, and GFRα1 ternary complex, defining the basis for ligand recognition. RET(ECD) envelopes the dimeric ligand complex through a composite binding site comprising four discrete contact sites. The GFRα1-mediated contacts are crucial, particularly close to the invariant RET calcium-binding site, whereas few direct contacts are made by GDNF, explaining how distinct ligand/coreceptor pairs are accommodated. The RET(ECD) cysteine-rich domain (CRD) contacts both ligand components and makes homotypic membrane-proximal interactions occluding three different antibody epitopes. Coupling of these CRD-mediated interactions suggests models for ligand-induced RET activation and ligand-independent oncogenic deregulation.

Expression patterns of gdnf and gfrα1 in rainbow trout testis.

In mice, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is essential for normal spermatogenesis and in vitro culture of spermatogonial stem cells. In murine testes, GDNF acts as paracrine factor; Sertoli cells secrete it to a subset of spermatogonial cells expressing its receptor, GDNF family receptor α1 (GFRα1). However, in fish, it is unclear what types of cells express gdnf and gfrα1. In this study, we isolated the rainbow trout orthologues of these genes and analyzed their expression patterns during spermatogenesis. In rainbow trout testes, gdnf and gfrα1 were expressed in almost all type A spermatogonia (ASG). Noticeably, unlike in mice, the expression of gdnf was not observed in Sertoli cells in rainbow trout. During spermatogenesis, the expression levels of these genes changed synchronously; gdnf and gfrα1 showed high expression in ASG and decreased dramatically in subsequent developmental stages. These results suggested that GDNF most likely acts as an autocrine factor in rainbow trout testes.

Structural studies of GDNF family ligands with their receptors-Insights into ligand recognition and activation of receptor tyrosine kinase RET.

RET is the receptor for glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor family of ligands (GFLs). It is different from most other members in the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) family with the requirement of a co-receptor, GFRα, for ligand recognition and activation. Through the common signal transducer RET, GFLs are crucial for the development and maintenance of distinct sets of central and peripheral neurons, which has led to a series of studies towards understanding the structure, function and signaling mechanisms of GFLs with GFRα and RET receptors. Here I summarize our current understanding of the molecular basis underlying ligand recognition and activation of RET, focusing on the interactions of GFLs with their respective GFRα receptors, the recently determined crystal structure of RET extracellular region and a proposed GFL-GFRα-RET ternary complex model based on extensive structural, biochemical and functional data. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Emerging recognition and activation mechanisms of receptor tyrosine kinases.

A specific isoform of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor family receptor alpha 1 regulates RhoA expression and glioma cell migration.

Malignant gliomas are highly invasive neuroepithelial tumors where the tendency to invade and migrate away from the primary tumor mass is thought to be a leading cause of tumor recurrence and treatment failures. Autocrine signals produced by secreted factors that signal through receptors on the tumor are known to contribute to the invasiveness. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and GDNF family receptor alpha 1 (GFRα1) are over-expressed in human gliomas. We have previously reported that human gliomas express high levels of GFRα1b, an alternatively spliced isoform of GFRα1. However, the functional significance of GFRα1b in glioma behaviors is currently unknown. In this study, we have designed isoform-specific small-interfering RNA to knockdown the highly homologous GFRα1a or GFRα1b isoform efficiently in malignant C6 glioma cells. Unexpectedly, the knockdown of GFRα1b but not GFRα1a induced cell elongation and inhibited C6 cell migration and invasion in vitro. In addition, GFRα1b was found to regulate the expression of RhoA small GTPase, which was required for migration of C6 cells. The decreases in RhoA expression and cell migration after GFRα1b knockdown were attenuated by small-interfering RNA -resistant GFRα1b but not GFRα1a, further demonstrating the specific role of GFRα1b in glioma migration. Interestingly, the knockdown of NCAM but not receptor tyrosine kinase Ret resulted in the reduction of RhoA expression and C6 cell migration. Taken together, these unanticipated results indicate that GFRα1b is involved in glioma migration through glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor -GFRα1b-NCAM signaling complex and modulation of RhoA expression.

[Multiple endocrine neoplasia: genetic aspects]. / Néoplasies endocriniennes multiples, aspects génétiques.

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) and type 2 (MEN2) are major genetic disorders carrying a high risk of endocrine tumor development. The mutated genes were identified in 1993 (MEN2-RET) and 1997 (MEN1), enabling genetic testing and functional studies. Genetic analysis has led to new clinical and therapeutic strategies for MEN1/2 patients, and has improved our understanding of the pathways underlying the development of such tumors, which occur in an autosomal dominant manner and with high penetrance. The MEN1 gene encodes menin, a protein involved in many cell functions, such as transcription, genome stability, cell cycling and apoptosis. The MEN1 gene has 10 exons, and its exhaustive analysis in MEN1 patients helps guide their management. MEN2 is related to activating missense mutations in the RET protooncogene, which encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor (TKR). RET activation occurs upon autodimerization induced by the binding of specific ligands belonging to glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor-like family (GFL) proteins, regulated by coreceptors. The position of missense mutations--in the extracellular or intracellular TK domains--influences the aggressiveness of the most frequent malignancy, medullary thyroid carcinoma, establishing a genotype-phenotype correlation. We also briefly describe the genetic basis of three other inherited states predisposing individuals to endocrine tumors, namely Carney's syndrome, hyperparathyroidism type 2 (HRPT2) and familial isolated pituitary adenoma (FIPA), which are related to inactivating mutations in the PRKAR1-alpha, HRPT2 and AIP genes, respectively.

Beyond the cell surface: new mechanisms of receptor function.

The text book view of cell surface receptors depicts them at the top of a vertical chain of command that starts with ligand binding and proceeds in a lineal fashion towards the cell nucleus. Although pedagogically useful, this view is incomplete and recent findings suggest that the extracellular domain of cell surface receptors can be a transmitter as much as a receiver in intercellular communication. GFRalpha1 is a GPI-anchored receptor for GDNF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor), a neuronal growth factor with widespread functions in the developing and adult nervous system. GFRalpha1 partners with transmembrane proteins, such as the receptor tyrosine kinase RET or the cell adhesion molecule NCAM, for intracellular transmission of the GDNF signal. In addition to this canonical role, GFRalpha1 can also engage in horizontal interactions and thereby modify the function of other cell surface components. GFRalpha1 can also function as a ligand-induced adhesion cell molecule, mediating homophilic cell-cell interactions in response to GDNF. Finally, GFRalpha1 can also be released from the cell surface and act at a distance as a soluble factor together with its ligand. This plethora of unconventional mechanisms is likely to be a feature common to several other receptors and considerably expands our view of cell surface receptor function.

Comparison of GFL-GFRalpha complexes: further evidence relating GFL bend angle to RET signalling.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) activates the receptor tyrosine kinase RET by binding to the GDNF-family receptor alpha1 (GFRalpha1) and forming the GDNF(2)-GFRalpha1(2)-RET(2) heterohexamer complex. A previous crystal structure of the GDNF(2)-GFRalpha1(2) complex (PDB code 2v5e) suggested that differences in signalling in GDNF-family ligand (GFL) complexes might arise from differences in the bend angle between the two monomers in the GFL homodimer. Here, a 2.35 A resolution structure of the GDNF(2)-GFRalpha1(2) complex crystallized with new cell dimensions is reported. The structure was refined to a final R factor of 22.5% (R(free) = 28%). The structures of both biological tetrameric complexes in the asymmetric unit are very similar to 2v5e and different from the artemin-GFRalpha3 structure, even though there is a small change in the structure of the GDNF. By comparison of all known GDNF and artemin structures, it is concluded that GDNF is more bent and more flexible than artemin and that this may be related to RET signalling. Comparisons also suggest that the differences between artemin and GDNF arise from the increased curvature of the artemin ;fingers', which both increases the buried surface area in the monomer-monomer interface and changes the intermonomer bend angle. From sequence comparison, it is suggested that neuturin (the second GFL) adopts an artemin-like conformation, while persephin has a different conformation to the other three.

The structure of the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor-coreceptor complex: insights into RET signaling and heparin binding.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), a neuronal survival factor, binds its co-receptor GDNF family receptor alpha1 (GFR alpha 1) in a 2:2 ratio and signals through the receptor tyrosine kinase RET. We have solved the GDNF(2).GFR alpha 1(2) complex structure at 2.35 A resolution in the presence of a heparin mimic, sucrose octasulfate. The structure of our GDNF(2).GFR alpha 1(2) complex and the previously published artemin(2).GFR alpha 3(2) complex are unlike in three ways. First, we have experimentally identified residues that differ in the ligand-GFR alpha interface between the two structures, in particular ones that buttress the key conserved Arg(GFR alpha)-Glu(ligand)-Arg(GFR alpha) interaction. Second, the flexible GDNF ligand "finger" loops fit differently into the GFR alphas, which are rigid. Third, and we believe most importantly, the quaternary structure of the two tetramers is dissimilar, because the angle between the two GDNF monomers is different. This suggests that the RET-RET interaction differs in different ligand(2)-co-receptor(2)-RET(2) heterohexamer complexes. Consistent with this, we showed that GDNF(2).GFR alpha1(2) and artemin(2).GFR alpha 3(2) signal differently in a mitogen-activated protein kinase assay. Furthermore, we have shown by mutagenesis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays of RET phosphorylation that RET probably interacts with GFR alpha 1 residues Arg-190, Lys-194, Arg-197, Gln-198, Lys-202, Arg-257, Arg-259, Glu-323, and Asp-324 upon both domains 2 and 3. Interestingly, in our structure, sucrose octasulfate also binds to the Arg(190)-Lys(202) region in GFR alpha 1 domain 2. This may explain how GDNF.GFR alpha 1 can mediate cell adhesion and how heparin might inhibit GDNF signaling through RET.

Insights into GFRalpha1 regulation of neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) function from structure-function analysis of the NCAM/GFRalpha1 receptor complex.

The neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM binds glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) through specific determinants located in its third immunoglobulin (Ig) domain. However, high affinity GDNF binding and downstream signaling depend upon NCAM co-expression with the GDNF co-receptor GFRalpha1. GFRalpha1 promotes high affinity GDNF binding to NCAM and down-regulates NCAM-mediated homophilic cell adhesion, but the mechanisms underlying these effects are unknown. NCAM and GFRalpha1 interact at the plasma membrane, but the molecular determinants involved have not been characterized nor is it clear whether their interaction is required for GFRalpha1 regulation of NCAM function. We have investigated the structure-function relationships underlying GFRalpha1 binding to NCAM in intact cells. The fourth Ig domain of NCAM was both necessary and sufficient for the interaction of NCAM with GFRalpha1. Moreover, although the N-terminal domain of GFRalpha1 had previously been shown to be dispensable for GDNF binding, we found that it was both necessary and sufficient for the efficient interaction of this receptor with NCAM. GFRalpha1 lacking its N-terminal domain was still able to potentiate GDNF binding to NCAM and assemble into a tripartite receptor complex but showed a reduced capacity to attenuate NCAM-mediated cell adhesion. On its own, the GFRalpha1 N-terminal domain was sufficient to decrease NCAM-mediated cell adhesion. These results indicate that direct receptor-receptor interactions are not required for high affinity GDNF binding to NCAM but play an important role in the regulation of NCAM-mediated cell adhesion by GFRalpha1.

The major determinant of the heparin binding of glial cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor is near the N-terminus and is dispensable for receptor binding.

GDNF (glial cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor), and the closely related cytokines artemin and neurturin, bind strongly to heparin. Deletion of a basic amino-acid-rich sequence of 16 residues N-terminal to the first cysteine of the transforming growth factor beta domain of GDNF results in a marked reduction in heparin binding, whereas removal of a neighbouring sequence, and replacement of pairs of other basic residues with alanine had no effect. The heparin-binding sequence is quite distinct from the binding site for the high affinity GDNF polypeptide receptor, GFRalpha1 (GDNF family receptor alpha1), and heparin-bound GDNF is able to bind GFRalpha1 simultaneously. The heparin-binding sequence of GDNF is dispensable both for GFRalpha1 binding, and for activity for in vitro neurite outgrowth assay. Surprisingly, the observed inhibition of GDNF bioactivity with the wild-type protein in this assay was still found with the deletion mutant lacking the heparin-binding sequence. Heparin neither inhibits nor potentiates GDNF-GFRalpha1 interaction, and the extracellular domain of GFRalpha1 does not bind to heparin itself, precluding heparin cross-bridging of cytokine and receptor polypeptides. The role of heparin and heparan sulfate in GDNF signalling remains unclear, but the present study indicates that it does not occur in the first step of the pathway, namely GDNF-GFRalpha1 engagement.

The mouse soluble GFRalpha4 receptor activates RET independently of its ligand persephin.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family ligands (GFLs) all signal through the transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase RET. The signalling complex consists of GFLs, GPI-anchored ligand binding GDNF family receptor alphas (GFRalphas) and RET. Signalling via RET is required for the development of the nervous system and the kidney, as well as for spermatogenesis. However, constitutive activation of RET is implicated as a cause in several diseases. Mutations of the RET proto-oncogene cause the inherited cancer syndrome multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2). Recently, it has been suggested that mutations in the persephin binding GFRalpha4 receptor may have a potentially modifying role in MEN 2. Several naturally occurring, different splice variants of the mammalian GFRalpha4 have been reported. A 7 bp insertion-mutation in the human GFRalpha4 gene causes a shift of reading frame and thereby changes the balance between the transcripts encoding GPI-anchored and soluble GFRalpha4 receptors. We report here that the mammalian soluble GFRalpha4 can activate RET independently of its preferential ligand, persephin. Our data show that soluble GFRalpha4 can associate with, and induce, phosphorylation of RET. In addition, our data show that this isoform of GFRalpha4 can induce downstream signalling, as well as neuronal survival and differentiation, in the absence of persephin. These results suggest that, in line with the previous report, GFRalpha4 may be a candidate gene for, or modifier of, the MEN 2 diseases.

Structure of artemin complexed with its receptor GFRalpha3: convergent recognition of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factors.

Artemin (ARTN) is a member of the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family ligands (GFLs) which regulate the development and maintenance of many neuronal populations in the mammalian nervous system. Here we report the 1.92 A crystal structure of the complex formed between ARTN and its receptor GFRalpha3, which is the initiating step in the formation of a ternary signaling complex containing the shared RET receptor. It represents a new receptor-ligand interaction mode for the TGF-beta superfamily that reveals both conserved and specificity-determining anchor points for all GFL-GFRalpha pairs. In tandem with the complex structure, cellular studies using receptor chimeras implicate dyad-symmetric composite interfaces for recruitment and dimerization of RET, leading to intracellular signaling. These studies should facilitate the functional dissection of the specific versus pleiotropic roles of this system in neurobiology, as well as its exploitation for therapeutic applications.

The first cysteine-rich domain of the receptor GFRalpha1 stabilizes the binding of GDNF.

The GDNF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor)-binding receptor GFRalpha1 (GDNF family receptor alpha1) is attached to the membrane by a GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol) anchor and consists of three cysteine-rich domains. The region corresponding to the second and third domains has been shown previously to participate in ligand binding, and to interact with the transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor RET. No function has so far been found for the N-terminal, first domain (D1). Here we show that the GPI-anchored full-length receptor binds 125I-GDNF two times more tightly than does a GPI-anchored truncated receptor lacking D1. Scintillation proximity assays with purified receptor proteins also show that the GDNF-binding capacity of the soluble full-length GFRalpha1 is two times higher than the GDNF-binding capacity of the soluble D1-truncated GFRalpha1. As RET stabilizes the binding of GDNF equally well to the full-length and truncated receptors, D1 seems not to be involved in the interaction between GFRalpha1 and RET. Moreover, soluble full-length GFRalpha1 mediates GDNF-promoted neurite outgrowth in PC6-3 cells more efficiently than the soluble truncated GFRalpha1 protein. At low concentrations, the soluble fulllength receptor mediates the phosphorylation of RET more efficiently than the soluble truncated receptor. However, when the receptors are overexpressed on the cell surface as GPI-anchored proteins, or added to the growth medium at high concentrations as soluble proteins, full-length and truncated GFRalpha1 are indistinguishable in GDNF-dependent RET-phosphorylation assays. High levels of the receptors can thus mask a slightly impaired function in the phosphorylation assay. Based on assays with both GPI-anchored and soluble receptors, we therefore conclude that D1 contributes to the optimal function of GFRalpha1 by stabilizing the interaction between GFRalpha1 and GDNF.