Per aspera ad astra: Life and work of the persecuted Jewish oral pathologist Joseph Weinmann (1896-1960).

Given his seminal scientific oeuvre, Joseph P. Weinmann (1896-1960) is considered a pioneer of oral pathology. He also paved the way for generations of scientists and physicians with the standard work "Bone and Bones", his textbook on oral pathology and histology, and the "Oral Pathology Program" at the University of Illinois. Far less well known is the fact that Weinmann, as a Jew, was disenfranchised by the Nazis in Vienna in 1938. Against this background, this study aims to shed light on the circumstances of Weinmann's persecution and subsequent forced emigration, as well as the further development of his career in the United States. This includes the question of which factors were decisive for Weinmann's scientific breakthrough in Chicago. The analysis draws on a variety of archival sources and contemporary printed writings. What at first glance looks like the impressive curriculum vitae of a successful scientist turns out to be a story of loss, violence, and a difficult new beginning. Joseph Weinmann first had to overcome several setbacks - disenfranchisement and expropriation by the National Socialists, a brief imprisonment before his planned escape from Vienna, and a failed immigration attempt in Great Britain - before he succeeded in an international career in the USA, which brought him, among other things, a chair and the presidency of the "American Academy of Oral Pathology". From the results, it can be concluded that Weinmann's success was not due to one specific reason, but based on many mutually beneficial factors (personal relationships, scientific prominence, favorable research environment, fortitude, adaptability, highly sought-after professional specialization).

Landscape genetics and the genetic legacy of Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in the modern Caucasus.

This study clarifies the role of refugia and landscape permeability in the formation of the current genetic structure of peoples of the Caucasus. We report novel genome-wide data for modern individuals from the Caucasus, and analyze them together with available Paleolithic and Mesolithic individuals from Eurasia and Africa in order (1) to link the current and ancient genetic structures via landscape permeability, and (2) thus to identify movement paths between the ancient refugial populations and the Caucasus. The ancient genetic ancestry is best explained by landscape permeability implying that human movement is impeded by terrain ruggedness, swamps, glaciers and desert. Major refugial source populations for the modern Caucasus are those of the Caucasus, Anatolia, the Balkans and Siberia. In Rugged areas new genetic signatures take a long time to form, but once they do so, they remain for a long time. These areas act as time capsules harboring genetic signatures of ancient source populations and making it possible to help reconstruct human history based on patterns of variation today.

Fighting Prejudice and Absorbing Refugees From Nazism: The National Committee for the Resettlement of Foreign Physicians, 1939-1945.

In the 1930s and 1940s, the medical profession reacted with hostility and erected formidable barriers to refugee physicians from Nazi-dominated Europe who sought to practice medicine in the United States. Yet, refugee physicians ultimately succeeded, with 77% of them working as doctors by 1945 and 98.6% by 1947. Although physician skills are readily transferable, and the United States had a genuine need for doctors after World War II drew 55 000 physicians into the military, refugee physicians' success can be attributed to the courageous physician leaders who lobbied on their behalf and the creation of the National Committee for the Resettlement of Foreign Physicians-an organization that helped immigrant physicians pass licensing examinations, identify locations for employment, and overcome barriers to integration into American society.

Success or failure? Pathologists persecuted under National Socialism and their careers after emigrating to the United States.

This study examines the biographies of pathologists persecuted by the National Socialists after their emigration from the German Reich to the USA. The work is based on primary sources from various archives and a systematic evaluation of secondary literature on the persons concerned. The study yields five central results: (1) Out of 118 identified persecuted pathologists, a total of 91 persons left the German Reich, 60 of them demonstrably to the USA. (2) The majority of the pathologists immigrated to the USA between 1938 and 1941. (3) A good two thirds of the pathologists were (again) employed in the USA as university teachers, the majority in the leading position of Full Professor. (4) The preferred area of employment was the East Coast of the USA. (5) The labor market situation was particularly favorable for specialized pathologists. It can be concluded that the majority of the emigrated pathologists studied succeeded in continuing or even expanding their professional careers in the USA, with existing academic networks playing a noticeable role. Pathology thus occupies a special position in the context of the migration history of persecuted physicians under National Socialism.

Haven or Limbo? Neuroscientist Refugees From National Socialism Escape to Illinois.

At least 9 neuroscientists immigrated from Nazi Europe to Illinois to escape tyranny and attempt to re-establish their careers. Some work has been published in print on eponymous neuroscientist Adolf Wallenberg, as well as 2 others but not on Ernst Haase, Frederick Hiller, Erich Liebert, Bruno Volk, Heinz (Henry) von Witzleben, or Gerhard Pisk. Before leaving Germany or Austria, these downtrodden specialists were dismissed from long-held posts sometimes for trumped-up charges, stripped of their financial security, and forced to leave relatives behind. At least 1 left only for personal and political, but not because of racial, reasons. Illinois, in exemplary fashion, welcomed these unfortunate survivors more than many other states because of limited licensing requirements, numerous opportunities at state hospitals, and special internship programs. Some of them successfully continued their research agendas and published, taught neurology students and trainees, and added to the expansion of neurologic care in Illinois or elsewhere, but most of them took years to reacquire the academic rank they lost and never regained their career momentum. These refugees survived and passed on some of their extensive training and expertise to a new generation of neuroscientists in America, but not without significant cost.

Sexually Transmitted Infections in a Cohort of 15,921 Refugees (1926-1940) in the Region of Imathia, Northern Greece.

This historical epidemiological study evaluates sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among Greek refugees during the Interwar period in the region of Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece, as a part of the effort against sexually transmitted infections in Greece (1910-1940). We examined the archives of the Refugee Hospital of Veroia - the capital of the regional unit of Imathia (March 5, 1926 to October 27, 1940). This is a report of previously unpublished primary material comprising a cohort of 15,921 cases, among whom 41 patients were hospitalized on account of syphilis and 19 on account of gonococcal infection. Descriptive statistics were estimated. Primary (n=4), secondary (n=2), tertiary (n=13), congenital (n=7), and not further specified (n=15) cases of syphilis were identified, whereas a variety of differential diagnosis problems arose. Syphilis and gonococcal infection/gonorrhea seemed to affect various social groups, as evidenced by the variety of professions involved. Refugee patients originated from various areas such as Caucasus, Thrace, Constantinople, Bithynia, and Pontus. Lack of information and poor healthcare led to spreading of STIs in Greece. Law 3032/1922 was crucial for the Greek effort against sexually transmitted infections.

The Saint George Quarantine Station of Piraeus, Greece (1865-1947)

For centuries, the marine quarantine system was the major protection of the public health against serious infectious diseases around the world. The present study reconstructs the history of the Quarantine Station of Piraeus, one of the largest Mediterranean ports, known as the "Lazaretto of Saint George", as a vital element in the maritime sanitary protection of Greece. Our research will investigate the impact left by this institution on public health, as well as on the economic life of the port of Piraeus and the adjacent capital city of Athens. With regard to the first issue, we will seek to evaluate its role in relation to major outbreaks in the capital, as well as the arrival of 1.3 million Greek refugees after the Greco-Turkish War of 1922. The opening of Suez Canal (1865) was a great challenge and the institution was problematic at administrative and sanitary levels. During 20th century, the station complied with the national public health legislation and the international sanitary conventions. Until the Second World War, the Lazaretto of Saint George played a key role in both the protection of public health in general, but also in the economic and industrial progress of Piraeus and Athens.

From Syrian Refugee to Dishwasher to Heart Doctor: The Inspirational Story of Hero and Humanitarian Dr. Heval Kelli.

It has been said that those with the least are often the ones with the most to give. This proved to be true for a Syrian refugee turned cardiologist who provides care in communities that are poor and underserved including refugees, immigrants, minorities, those of low socioeconomic status, and other vulnerable populations. Dr. Heval Kelli is the epitome of a kind-hearted, humble, genuine hero, through his dedication to serving humanity. Between providing health care to those in need, educating future generations of doctors, mentoring high school students, and advocating for the less fortunate, his life is truly his message to the world.

"Heal Thyself."­An Argument for Granting Asylum to Healthcare Workers Persecuted During the 2014 West African Ebola Crisis.

This article argues for a change in United States asylum policy at a time when change is needed most. Those seeking asylum must prove that they fear persecution in their home country based on one of five protected categories and that their government is the persecutor or is unable to control the actions of the persecutors. Multiple articles have recognized that the "particular social group" is the most difficult category of asylum seeker to analyze. Not only do the standards for particular social groups (PSGs) vary among circuit courts, but judicial consistency is lacking. This article focuses on a particular PSG, healthcare workers from recently Ebola-stricken West Africa. During the 2014 Ebola crisis, these healthcare workers faced discrimination and violence due to their association with western medicine. Hospitals were frequently threatened and ransacked. Multiple accounts of violence against local and international healthcare workers were recorded by Doctors Against Borders, the Centers for Disease Control, and the international media. However, because of the inconsistencies in asylum law and the ever-present political influence in what originates as a humanitarian process, it is unlikely for these PSGs to be found asylum-eligible. This highlights the need for a more consistent and humanitarian-based asylum policy with less political influence.

A Brief Introduction to Mass Migration: Then and Now.

To provide a context, this introduction presents a bird's-eye view of migration history, of some differences between voluntary and forced motivation for leaving home territories, and the significance of large group relocations.(mass migrations). The challenges of adjustment and acculturation as well as the interactional effects on migrants and host populations, including mental health issues and facilities, are considered.

Refugee Policy Implications of U.S. Immigration Medical Screenings: A New Era of Inadmissibility on Health-Related Grounds.

Refugees frequently face extended delays in their efforts to enter the United States (U.S.) and those who are successful, in many cases, encounter overwhelming obstacles, inadequate resources, and a complex system of legal barriers. Travel restrictions based on equivocal health concerns and a drop in refugee admittance ceilings have complicated the situation. The authors retrieved and analyzed peer-reviewed journal articles, government agency press releases, media postings, epidemiologic factsheets, and relevant lay publications to critically assess U.S. policy regarding refugee resettlement based on health-related grounds. While refugees arguably exhibit an increased incidence of measles and tuberculosis compared with the U.S. population, the legitimacy of the medical examination will be undermined if other diseases that are endemic to refugee populations, yet currently deemed admissible, are used to restrict refugees from entering the U.S. This paper addressees the historic refugee policy of the U.S. and its consequent effect on the health of this vulnerable population. The needs of refugees should be carefully considered in the context of increased disease burden and the associated health care challenges of the country as a whole.

How the nerves reached the muscle: Bernard Katz, Stephen W. Kuffler, and John C. Eccles-Certain implications of exile for the development of twentieth-century neurophysiology.

This article explores the work by Bernard Katz (1911-2003), Stephen W. Kuffler (1913-1980), and John C. Eccles (1903-1997) on the nerve-muscle junction as a milestone in twentieth-century neurophysiology with wider scientific implications. The historical question is approached from two perspectives: (a) an investigation of twentieth-century solutions to a longer physiological dispute and (b) an examination of a new kind of laboratory and academic cooperation. From this vantage point, the work pursued in Sydney by Sir John Carew Eccles' team on the neuromuscular junction is particularly valuable, since it contributed a central functional element to modern physiological understanding regarding the function and structure of the human and animal nervous system. The reflex model of neuromuscular action had already been advanced by neuroanatomists such as Georg Prochaska (1749-1820) in Bohemia since the eighteenth century. It became a major component of neurophysiological theories during the nineteenth century, based on the law associated with the names of François Magendie (1783-1855) in France and Charles Bell (1774-1842) in Britain regarding the functional differences of the sensory and motor spinal nerves. Yet, it was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that both the histological and the neurophysiological understanding of the nerve-muscle connection became entirely understood and the chemical versus electrical transmission further elicited as the mechanisms of inhibition. John C. Eccles, Bernard Katz, and Stephen W. Kuffler helped to provide some of the missing links for modern neurophysiology. The current article explores several of their scientific contributions and investigates how the context of forced migration contributed to these interactions in contingently new ways.

Detention of Immigrant Children.

Immigrant children seeking safe haven in the United States, whether arriving unaccompanied or in family units, face a complicated evaluation and legal process from the point of arrival through permanent resettlement in communities. The conditions in which children are detained and the support services that are available to them are of great concern to pediatricians and other advocates for children. In accordance with internationally accepted rights of the child, immigrant and refugee children should be treated with dignity and respect and should not be exposed to conditions that may harm or traumatize them. The Department of Homeland Security facilities do not meet the basic standards for the care of children in residential settings. The recommendations in this statement call for limited exposure of any child to current Department of Homeland Security facilities (ie, Customs and Border Protection and Immigration and Customs Enforcement facilities) and for longitudinal evaluation of the health consequences of detention of immigrant children in the United States. From the moment children are in the custody of the United States, they deserve health care that meets guideline-based standards, treatment that mitigates harm or traumatization, and services that support their health and well-being. This policy statement also provides specific recommendations regarding postrelease services once a child is released into communities across the country, including a coordinated system that facilitates access to a medical home and consistent access to education, child care, interpretation services, and legal services.

Activities of Latvian pharmacists in the Latvian Red Cross organization in exile in Germany (1945-1976).

The Latvian Red Cross has performed its assistance mission outside the territory of Latvia for several decades. In the 40-s of the 20th century, the state of Latvia and its people went through one of the most tragic pages of their history. Due to the re-occupation made by the Soviet Union in 1944, many people of Latvia fled to exile and under exile conditions the Latvian societies, parishes and public organizations came into being, including the Latvian Red Cross. It started its activities in the second part of the 40-s of the 20th century in Germany and then representative offices emerged in the U.S.A., Sweden, France, Italy, Denmark, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand. Special attention should be paid to the fact that the activity under exile conditions was of a large scale, well-organized and long-lasting. Substantial work at that time has been done by a number of pharmacists. Among them, the pharmacist and doctor Hugo Skudins (1903-1976) should be emphasized, who organized the purveyance of medication and sending them to Latvians in the occupied Latvia and to the penal camps in Siberia.