Hyperthyroidism-Induced Upregulation of Neurodegeneration-Related Gene Expression in Metaplasticity-Induced Hippocampus.

INTRODUCTION: Thyroid hormones, which produce critical changes in our bodies even when their physiological levels alter slightly, are crucial hormones that influence gene transcription. Neuronal plasticity, on the other hand, requires both the activation of local proteins as well as protein translation and transcription in response to external signals. So far, no study has examined metaplastic long-term potentiation (LTP) and related gene expression levels in a hyperthyroid experimental model. METHODS: The Wistar male rats were administered 0.2 mg/kg/day of l-thyroxine for 21 days to induce hyperthyroidism. Perforant path was primed with 1-Hz low-frequency stimuli (LFS) for 900 s to investigate metaplasticity responses. The LFS was followed by high-frequency stimuli (HFS, 100 Hz) after 5 min. Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) slope and population spike (PS) amplitude were recorded from the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus. The mRNA levels of genes related to neurodegeneration (Gsk-3ß, Cdk5, Akt1, Mapt, p35, Capn1, Bace1, and Psen2) were measured using the RT-PCR method for the stimulated hippocampus. RESULTS: Similar to euthyroid rats, hyperthyroid animals had a lower EPSP slope and PS after LFS. Depression of EPSP prevented subsequently induced EPSP-LTP, although HFS was able to elicit PS-LTP despite depression of PS amplitude in both groups. Despite similarities in metaplastic LTP responses, these electrophysiological findings were accompanied by increased Akt, Bace1, Cdk5, and p35-mRNA expressions and decreased Gsk-3ß mRNA expression in hyperthyroid rats' hippocampus. CONCLUSION: These data support the view that in thyroid hormone excess, the mechanism that keeps synaptic efficacy within a dynamic range occurs concurrently with increased mRNA expression of neurodegeneration-related genes. Our study encourages further examination of the increased risk of neurodegenerative disease in hyperthyroidism.

Dauricine alleviates cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease mice induced by D-galactose and AlCl3 via the Ca2+/CaM pathway.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease in the elderly. Dysregulation of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis plays a critical role in the pathological development of AD. Dauricine (DAU) is a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid isolated from Menispermum dauricum DC., which can prevent the influx of extracellular Ca2+ and inhibit the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum. DAU has a potential for anti-AD. However, it is unclear whether DAU can exert its anti-AD effect in vivo by regulating the Ca2+ related signaling pathways. Here, we investigated the effect and mechanism of DAU on D-galactose and AlCl3 combined-induced AD mice based on the Ca2+/CaM pathway. The results showed that DAU (1 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg for 30 days) treatment attenuated learning and memory deficits and improved the nesting ability of AD mice. The HE staining assay showed that DAU could inhibit the histopathological alterations and attenuate neuronal damage in the hippocampus and cortex of AD mice. Studies on the mechanism indicated that DAU decreased the phosphorylation of CaMKII and Tau and reduced the formation of NFTs in the hippocampus and cortex. DAU treatment also reduced the abnormally high expression of APP, BACE1, and Aß1-42, which inhibited the deposition of Aß plaques. Moreover, DAU could decrease Ca2+ levels and inhibit elevated CaM protein expression in the hippocampus and cortex of AD mice. The molecular docking results showed that DAU may have a high affinity with CaM or BACE1. DAU has a beneficial impact on pathological changes in AD mice induced by D-galactose and AlCl3 and may act by negative regulation of the Ca2+/CaM pathway and its downstream molecules such as CaMKII and BACE1.

Neuroprotective Activity of Mentha Species on Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Apoptosis in SH-SY5Y Cells.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder with an unclear cause. It appears that multiple factors participate in the process of neuronal damage including oxidative stress and accumulation of the protein amyloid ß (Aß) in the brain. The search for a treatment for this disorder is essential as current medications are limited to alleviating symptoms and palliative effects. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of mint extracts on selected mechanisms implicated in the development of AD. To enable a thorough investigation of mechanisms, including effects on ß-secretase (the enzyme that leads to the formation of Aß), on Aß aggregation, and on oxidative stress and apoptosis pathways, a neuronal cell model, SH-SY5Y cells, was selected. Six Mentha taxa were investigated for their in vitro ß-secretase (BACE) and Aß-aggregation inhibition activities. Moreover, their neuroprotective effects on H2O2-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells were evaluated through caspase activity. Real-time PCR and Western blot analysis were carried out for the two most promising extracts to determine their effects on signalling pathways in SH-SY5Y cells. All mint extracts had strong BACE inhibition activity. M. requienii extracts showed excellent inhibition of Aß-aggregation, while other extracts showed moderate inhibition. M. diemenica and M. requienii extracts lowered caspase activity. Exposure of SH-SY5Y cells to M. diemenica extracts resulted in a decrease in the expression of pro-apoptotic protein, Bax, and an elevation in the anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-xL, potentially mediated by down-regulation of the ASK1-JNK pathway. These results indicate that mint extracts could prevent the formation of Aß and also could prevent their aggregation if they had already formed. M. diemenica and M. requienii extracts have potential to suppress apoptosis at the cellular level. Hence, mint extracts could provide a source of efficacious compounds for a therapeutic approach for AD.

Development of semagacestat (LY450139), a functional gamma-secretase inhibitor, for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's disease is thought to be caused by increased formations of neurotoxic amyloid beta (A beta) peptides, which give rise to the hallmark amyloid plaques. Therefore, pharmacological agents that reduce A beta formation may be of therapeutic benefit. OBJECTIVE: This paper reviews the pharmacology and chemical efficacy of an A beta-lowering agent, semagacestat (LY450139). METHODS: A review of the published literature pertaining to semagacestat was obtained using several electronic search engines; unpublished data on file at Eli Lilly and Co. were used as supplementary material. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: Semagacestat treatment lowers plasma, cerebrospinal fluid and brain A beta in a dose-dependent manner in animals and plasma and cerebrospinal fluid A beta in humans, compared with placebo-treated patients. On the basis of extant data, semagacestat seems to be well tolerated, with most adverse events related to its actions on inhibition of peripheral Notch cleavage. Thus far, clinical efficacy has not been detectable because of the short duration of the current trials. Phase III trials with 21 months of active treatment are currently underway.

Why did tarenflurbil fail in Alzheimer's disease?

There has been a lot of disappointment surrounding the recent failure of the largest ever study in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) with tarenflurbil, a compound believed to modulate the activity of gamma-secretase, the pivotal enzyme that generates the amyloid-beta (A beta) peptide from the amyloid-beta protein precursor. What are the reasons for this setback after the previous apparently encouraging results in a Phase II study? A straightforward explanation of this failure is that the gamma-secretase is not the right target for therapy or that, in general, blocking A beta does not produce clinical benefits in AD. If one still accepts a physiopathological role of A beta in AD, tarenflurbil could not be the right compound because of its weak pharmacological activity as an A beta(1-42) lowering agent and its poor brain penetration. In addition, based on previous negative results with several anti-inflammatory drugs in AD, it is hypothesized that the residual anti-inflammatory activity of tarenflurbil may have a detrimental effect on disease progression.

Progress toward the discovery and development of efficacious BACE inhibitors.

BACE (beta-site amyloid precursor protein [APP] cleavage enzyme) is a transmembrane aspartyl protease responsible for the first cleavage event in the processing of APP to Abeta peptide. Amyloid plaques composed of Abeta peptides are hypothesized to be the root cause of neuronal cell death in Alzheimer's disease patients. Thus, BACE has become a target of significant interest for pharmaceutical and academic research. The recent literature relating to the discovery and development of efficacious BACE inhibitors is reviewed with particular emphasis on the patent literature.