Interregional synchrony of visuomotor tracking: perturbation effects and individual differences.

The present study evaluated the neural and behavioural correlates associated with a visuomotor tracking task during which a sensory perturbation was introduced that created a directional bias between moving hand and cursor position. The results revealed that trajectory error increased as a result of the perturbation in conjunction with a dynamic neural reorganization of cluster patterns that reflected distinct processing. In particular, a negatively activated cluster, characterizing the degraded information processing due to the perturbation, involved both hemispheres as well as midline area. Conversely, a positively activated cluster, indicative of compensatory processing was strongly confined to the left (dominant) hemisphere. In addition, a brain-behavioural association of good vs. poor performing participants enabled to localize a neural circuit within the left hemisphere and midline area that linked with successful performance. Overall, these data reinforce the functional significance of interregional synchrony in defining response output and behavioural success.

Abnormal neural oscillations and synchrony in schizophrenia.

Converging evidence from electrophysiological, physiological and anatomical studies suggests that abnormalities in the synchronized oscillatory activity of neurons may have a central role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Neural oscillations are a fundamental mechanism for the establishment of precise temporal relationships between neuronal responses that are in turn relevant for memory, perception and consciousness. In patients with schizophrenia, the synchronization of beta- and gamma-band activity is abnormal, suggesting a crucial role for dysfunctional oscillations in the generation of the cognitive deficits and other symptoms of the disorder. Dysfunctional oscillations may arise owing to anomalies in the brain's rhythm-generating networks of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) interneurons and in cortico-cortical connections.

Involvement of the prefrontal cortex in problem solving.

To achieve a behavioral goal in a complex environment, such as problem-solving situations, we must plan multiple steps of action. On planning a series of actions, we anticipate future events that will occur as a result of each action, and mentally organize the temporal sequence of events. To investigate the involvement of the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) in such multistep planning, we examined neuronal activity in the PFC while monkeys performed a maze path-finding task. In this task, we set monkeys the job of capturing a goal in the maze by moving a cursor on the screen. Cursor movement was linked to movements of each wrist. To dissociate the outcomes of the intended action from the motor commands, we trained the monkeys to use three different hand-cursor assignments. We found that monkeys were able to perform this task in a flexible manner. This report first introduces a problem-solving framework for studying the function of the PFC, from the view point of cognitive science. Then, this chapter will cover the neuronal representation of a series of actions, goal subgoal transformation, and synchrony of PFC neurons. We reported PFC neurons reflected final goals and immediate goals during the preparatory period. We also found some PFC neurons reflected each of all forthcoming steps of actions during the preparatory period and increased their activity step by step during the execution period. Recently, we found that the transient increase in synchronous activity of PFC neurons was involved in goal subgoal transformations. Our data suggest that the PFC is involved primarily in the dynamic representation of multiple future events that occur as a consequence of behavioral actions in problem-solving situations.

Emotion-elicited gamma synchrony in patients with first-episode schizophrenia: a neural correlate of social cognition outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia may be understood as a disorder of neural synchrony. There is also increasing evidence that emotional and social cognitive impairments are central to this disorder. In patients with first-episode schizophrenia, we examined whether emotion perception is associated with disruptions to high-frequency (40 Hz) gamma synchrony and whether these disruptions predict self-regulatory adaptive compensations reflected in social cognitive behaviours. METHODS: We obtained electroencephalography recordings from 28 patients with first-episode schizophrenia and matched healthy controls during perception of facial emotion under both conscious and nonconscious conditions. We extracted gamma-band synchrony from the electroencephalogram. We also used behavioural measures of emotion identification, emotional intelligence, negativity bias and social function, along with ratings of first-episode schizophrenia symptoms. We analyzed group differences and predicted social cognition to assess the potential contribution of medication. RESULTS: Within 200 ms poststimulus, patients with first-episode schizophrenia showed alterations in gamma synchrony during both conscious and nonconscious emotion perception. Stimulus-locked synchrony was reduced in patients, particularly over the temporal cortex, whereas complementary enhancements in absolute gamma synchrony (independent of stimuli) were more distributed over temporal and left parieto-occipital regions. This pattern of altered synchrony predicted poor performance on each measure of social cognition among these patients. Medication dosage did not correlate significantly with either gamma synchrony or behavioural measures in this group. LIMITATIONS: Limitations to our study include the lack of comparison between medicated and unmedicated patients or between types of medication. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that disruptions in integrative processing of motivationally important stimuli show promise as a potential biological marker of social cognitive impairments, present from the first episode of schizophrenia, and their outcomes.

Autism: a world changing too fast for a mis-wired brain?

Disorders in verbal and emotional communication and imitation, social reciprocity and higher order cognition observed in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are presented here as phenotypic expressions of temporo-spatial processing disorders (TSPDs). TSPDs include various degrees of disability in (i) processing multi-sensory dynamic stimuli online, (ii) associating them into meaningful and coherent patterns and (iii) producing real-time sensory-motor adjustments and motor outputs. In line with this theory, we found that slowing down the speed of facial and vocal events enhanced imitative, verbal and cognitive abilities in some ASD children, particularly those with low functioning autism. We then argue that TSPDs may result from Multi-system Brain Disconnectivity-Dissynchrony (MBD), defined as an increase or decrease in functional connectivity and neuronal synchronization within/between multiple neurofunctional territories and pathways. Recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electrophysiological studies supporting MBD are outlined. Finally, we review the suspected underlying neurobiological mechanisms of MBD as evidenced in neuroimaging, genetic, environmental and epigenetic studies. Overall, our TSPD/MBD approach to ASD may open new promising avenues for a better understanding of neuro-physio-psychopathology of ASD and clinical rehabilitation of people affected by these syndromes.

Current advances in the cognitive neuroscience of music.

The study of music perception and cognition is one of the oldest topics in experimental psychology. The last 20 years have seen an increased interest in understanding the functional neuroanatomy of music processing in humans, using a variety of technologies including fMRI, PET, ERP, MEG, and lesion studies. We review current findings in the context of a rich intellectual history of research, organized by the cognitive systems underlying different aspects of human musical behavior. We pay special attention to the perception of components of musical processing, musical structure, laterality effects, cultural issues, links between music and movement, emotional processing, expertise, and the amusias. Current trends are noted, such as the increased interest in evolutionary origins of music and comparisons of music and language. The review serves to demonstrate the important role that music can play in informing broad theories of higher order cognitive processes such as music in humans.

Neural correlates of consciousness.

A basic understanding of consciousness and its neural correlates is of major importance for all clinicians, especially those involved with patients with altered states of consciousness. In this paper it is shown that consciousness is dependent on the brainstem and thalamus for arousal; that basic cognition is supported by recurrent electrical activity between the cortex and the thalamus at gamma band frequencies; aand that some kind of working memory must, at least fleetingly, be present for awareness to occur. The problem of cognitive binding and the role of attention are briefly addressed and it shown that consciousness depends on a multitude of subconscious processes. Although these processes do not represent consciousness, consciousness cannot exist without them.

Abnormally high EEG alpha synchrony during working memory maintenance in twins discordant for schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: The present analyses aimed to test the prediction that schizophrenia patients and their non-schizophrenic co-twins would display reduced efficiency of the neurocognitive mechanisms subserving active maintenance of spatial information in working memory. METHODS: Upper alpha frequency band EEG event-related desynchronization and synchronization (ERD/ERS) were calculated as percent changes in power relative to an inter-trial baseline across 4 memory loads in a spatial delayed-response task. RESULTS: During the delay, the diagnostic groups showed equivalent ERD/ERS activity over posterior scalp regions at the lowest memory load; however, as memory load increased, patients, and to an intermediate degree, their non-schizophrenic co-twins (monozygotic and dizygotic pairs collapsed together), showed significantly greater increases in ERD/ERS amplitude as compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate abnormally increased ERD/ERS amplitudes with increasing memory load in patients with schizophrenia and their co-twins, consistent with inefficiency of the neurocognitive mechanisms supporting active maintenance of information across a delay.

Alpha band amplification during illusory jitter perception.

Synchronization is thought to have a role in linking disparate components into neural assemblies. However, the particular frequency of the synchronization is generally considered to be incidental to its functional role. Here we report a link between enhanced alpha activations and an illusory jitter of the same frequency. We measured perceived jitter rates and the magnetoencephalography during presentations of a stimulus wherein red squares and superimposed vertical green bars moved together across a black background. The green bars were either darker, equiluminant with, or brighter than the red squares. We established that the illusory jitter rate, robustly seen only in the equiluminant condition, was approximately 10 Hz. Crucially, neural oscillations around 10 Hz were enhanced in this condition. Surprisingly, approximately 10 Hz oscillations were also enhanced during illusory jitter perception relative to a moving stimulus that contained physical 10 Hz jitter. This suggests that the enhanced synchronization is associated with illusory jitter generation rather than with jitter perception. Since the stimulus eliciting illusory jitter moves smoothly and rigidly, both the percept and enhanced neural synchrony must be generated within the visual system. Our data therefore indicate a match between the dynamics of synchronous neural activity and the dynamics of a sensory experience offering the intriguing possibility of a common cause.

Consciousness and co-consciousness, binding problem and schizophrenia.

At this time is thought that binding of synchronized and distributed activity is crucial for the mechanism of consciousness. There are suggestive findings that disturbances in this feature binding produce disintegration of consciousness in schizophrenia. It leads to disturbances in reflection of the self and dissociated psychic fragments may be experienced as parts of the external world. Disturbances in the feature binding that lead to disintegration in neural communication among some parts of the brain thus seem to be a neurophysiological counterpart of psychological dissociative processes related to stress response and cognitive, affective and neuroendocrine dysregulation.

Mu rhythm (de)synchronization and EEG single-trial classification of different motor imagery tasks.

We studied the reactivity of EEG rhythms (mu rhythms) in association with the imagination of right hand, left hand, foot, and tongue movement with 60 EEG electrodes in nine able-bodied subjects. During hand motor imagery, the hand mu rhythm blocked or desynchronized in all subjects, whereas an enhancement of the hand area mu rhythm was observed during foot or tongue motor imagery in the majority of the subjects. The frequency of the most reactive components was 11.7 Hz +/- 0.4 (mean +/- SD). While the desynchronized components were broad banded and centered at 10.9 Hz +/- 0.9, the synchronized components were narrow banded and displayed higher frequencies at 12.0 Hz +/- 1.0. The discrimination between the four motor imagery tasks based on classification of single EEG trials improved when, in addition to event-related desynchronization (ERD), event-related synchronization (ERS) patterns were induced in at least one or two tasks. This implies that such EEG phenomena may be utilized in a multi-class brain-computer interface (BCI) operated simply by motor imagery.

Alpha synchronization and anxiety: implications for inhibition vs. alertness hypotheses.

Although there is much evidence that alpha oscillations are linked with processes of perception, attention and semantic memory, their functional significance remains uncertain. Synchronization in the alpha frequency range is taken to be a marker of cognitive inactivity, active inhibition of sensory information, or a means of inhibition of non-task relevant cortical areas. Here we propose an alternative interpretation which posits that higher alpha power during reference interval signifies higher readiness of alpha system to information processing. Predictions derived from the inhibition and alertness hypotheses were tested during presentation of acoustic stimuli (tone 1000 Hz) and neutral words to 30 males (18-25 years) with different levels of trait anxiety. On the whole, predictions derived from the inhibition theory were not confirmed and findings more corresponded to the alertness hypothesis. High-anxiety subjects showed higher alpha power during reference interval simultaneously with higher magnitude of event-related desynchronization and higher amplitude of phase-locked alpha responses. These findings are discussed in terms of functional significance of alpha band synchronization and desynchronization.

Synchronized brain activity during rehearsal and short-term memory disruption by irrelevant speech is affected by recall mode.

EEG coherence as a measure of synchronization of brain activity was used to investigate effects of irrelevant speech. In a delayed serial recall paradigm 21 healthy participants retained verbal items over a 10-s delay with and without interfering irrelevant speech. Recall after the delay was varied in two modes (spoken vs. written). Behavioral data showed the classic irrelevant speech effect and a superiority of written over spoken recall mode. Coherence, however, was more sensitive to processing characteristics and showed interactions between the irrelevant speech effect and recall mode during the rehearsal delay in theta (4-7.5 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), beta (13-20 Hz), and gamma (35-47 Hz) frequency bands. For gamma, a rehearsal-related decrease of the duration of high coherence due to presentation of irrelevant speech was found in a left-lateralized fronto-central and centro-temporal network only in spoken but not in written recall. In theta, coherence at predominantly fronto-parietal electrode combinations was indicative for memory demands and varied with individual working memory capacity assessed by digit span. Alpha coherence revealed similar results and patterns as theta coherence. In beta, a left-hemispheric network showed longer high synchronizations due to irrelevant speech only in written recall mode. EEG results suggest that mode of recall is critical for processing already during the retention period of a delayed serial recall task. Moreover, the finding that different networks are engaged with different recall modes shows that the disrupting effect of irrelevant speech is not a unitary mechanism.

Structural (operational) synchrony of EEG alpha activity during an auditory memory task.

Memory paradigms are often used in psycho-physiological experiments in order to understand the neural basis underlying cognitive processes. One of the fundamental problems encountered in memory research is how specific and complementary cortical structures interact with each other during episodic encoding and retrieval. A key aspect of the research described below was estimating the coupling of rapid transition processes (in terms of EEG description) which occur in separate cortical areas rather than estimating the routine phase-frequency synchrony in terms of correlation and coherency. It is assumed that these rapid transition processes in the EEG amplitude correspond to the "switching on/off" of brain elemental operations. By making a quantitative estimate of the EEG structural synchrony of alpha-band power between different EEG channels, it was shown that short-term memory has the emergent property of a multiregional neuronal network, and is not the product of strictly hierarchical processing based on convergence through association regions. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the dynamic temporal structure of alpha activity is strongly correlated to the dynamic structure of working memory.

The role of theta-range oscillations in synchronising and integrating activity in distributed mnemonic networks.

It is well established that the occurrence of theta rhythm in the hippocampus is important in a variety of mnemonic tasks. However, in this review it will be argued that theta-rhythmic activity occurs across distributed networks within the diencephalon and neocortex as well as the hippocampus, and functions to temporally coordinate activity in distributed systems within these regions during mnemonic processes. Recent evidence strongly suggests that theta-range cellular activity occurs in the supramammillary nucleus (SuM) of the hypothalamus, and that this activity is independent of that occurring in the hippocampus. We have previously proposed in fact, that the frequency of theta activity in the hippocampus is determined in the SuM, rather than in the medial septum as previously assumed. The frequency-coded information from the SuM is then fed into at least two recurrent networks proposed by Aggleton and Brown (1999). Theta activity in these networks (the hippocampo-anterior thalamic system and the perirhinal-mediodorsal thalamic system) could potentially occur independently, but when simultaneously occurring in both may function to coordinate the integration of information in the two systems. Finally, we suggest that as the two systems include temporal and frontal neocortical areas that contribute to surface EEG, scalp recording of theta EEG activity from these regions may provide a "window" through which to assess the relative involvement of different cortico-limbic circuits in different mnemonic processes. The potential utility of this technique will be increased greatly by the use of high-density EEG and algorithms to more precisely map the topography of cortical sources of EEG activity.

Disruption of early event-related theta synchronization of human EEG in alexithymics viewing affective pictures.

The 62-channel EEG was recorded while control non-alexithymic (n=21) and alexithymic (n=20) participants viewed sequentially presented neutral, pleasant and unpleasant pictures and subjectively rated them after each presentation. The event-related synchronization (ERS) to these stimuli was assessed in the theta-1 (4-6 Hz) and theta-2 (6-8 Hz) frequency bands. The obtained findings indicate that alexithymia influences perception of only emotional stimuli. Over anterior cortical regions alexithymia vs. control individuals in response to both pleasant and unpleasant stimuli manifested decreased left hemisphere ERS in the early test period of 0-200 ms along with enhanced ERS in response to negative vs. positive and neutral stimuli in the right hemisphere at 200-600 ms after stimulus onset. The findings provide the first EEG evidence that alexithymia construct, associated with a cognitive deficit in initial evaluation of emotion, is indexed by disrupted early frontal synchronization in the upper theta band that can be best interpreted to reflect disregulation during appraisal of emotional stimuli.

Synchrony: a neuronal mechanism for attentional selection?

Attentional selection involves brain processes that select and control the flow of information into the mechanisms that underlie perception and consciousness. One theory proposes that the neural activity that represents the stimuli or events to be attended to is selected through modification of its synchrony. Recent experimental evidence supports this theory, by showing that changes in attentional focus increase the synchrony of neural firing in some neuron pairs and decrease it in others.

EEG gamma-band phase synchronization between posterior and frontal cortex during mental rotation in humans.

The main purpose of the present paper was: (1) to study the phase synchronization pattern in the gamma-band while performing the classical Shepard-Metzler task of mental rotation; (2) to investigate the role of musical training; and (3) to study hemispheric differences in the degree of synchronization during mental rotation. Multivariate electroencephalograph signals from 20 male subjects (ten musicians and ten non-musicians) were recorded while performing the mental rotation task and also at resting condition. Phase synchronization was measured by a recent index, mean phase coherence. It was found that synchronization between frontal cortex and right parietal cortex was significantly increased during mental rotation with respect to rest, whereby musicians showed significantly higher degrees of synchronization than non-musicians. Left hemispheric dominance in the degree of phase synchronization, stronger in the posterior right parietal and occipital regions, was observed in musicians. Right hemispheric dominance was generally observed in non-musicians.

Event-related synchronization and desynchronization during affective processing: emergence of valence-related time-dependent hemispheric asymmetries in theta and upper alpha band.

Event-related desynchronization (ERD) and synchronization (ERS) in the individually defined theta, alpha-1, alpha-2, and alpha-3 frequency bands were measured in 22 healthy subjects (Ss) in response to neutral (Neut), emotionally positive (Pos), and negative (Neg) IAPS stimuli. The 62-channel EEG, facial EMG and ECG were simultaneously recorded while subjects viewed sequentially presented pictures and subjectively rated them after each presentation. The obtained findings indicate that differences induced by pictures varying in emotional valence are associated mainly with increased theta and alpha-3 synchronization activity and anterior hemispheric asymmetries. In the anterior temporal leads theta ERS revealed a significant valence by hemisphere interaction showing relatively greater right hemisphere theta ERS for Neg and left hemisphere ERS for Pos stimuli in the time window of 100-700 ms post-stimulus, whereas in the alpha-3 band Neg stimuli induced lateralized time-dependent left hemisphere ERS increased in the time window of 800-1200 ms, were not observed for Neut and Pos stimuli. The obtained results along with earlier observations on EEG correlates of affective processing challenge the notion that affective anterior hemispheric asymmetries are mainly sensitive to wide alpha frequency band. Frequency and time dependence of anterior hemispheric asymmetries in emotional valence discrimination is emphasized.

Prestimulus EEG alpha phase synchronicity influences N100 amplitude and reaction time.

The influence of the level of prestimulus alpha phase synchronicity on the N100 component and reaction time (RT) was examined, in target auditory oddball data from 25 normal subjects. Alpha phase synchronicity is a new measure consisting (for a given stimulus presentation) of the angular or circular variance of the alpha phase at stimulus onset across the parieto-occipital sites. The lower the angular variance, the higher the phase synchronicity (the more closely in phase the alpha activity across these sites) and vice versa. Subaveraged event-related potentials (ERPs) were formed for high and low prestimulus alpha phase synchronicity stimulus presentations. N100 amplitude was significantly greater in the high than the low phase synchronicity subaverages. In addition, RT was significantly reduced in the high prestimulus alpha phase synchronicity cases. Alpha phase synchronicity reflects an aspect of brain state that influences subsequent stimulus processing.