Macrocyclic trichothecenes from Myrothecium verrucaria PA 57 and their cytotoxic activity.

Four novel macrocyclic trichothecenes, termed mytoxins D-G (1-4), along with four known analogs (5-8), were isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of fermented rice inoculated with the fungus Myrothecium verrucaria PA57. Each compound features a tricyclic 12,13-epoxytrichothec-9-ene (EPT) core. Notably, mytoxin G (4) represents the first instance of a macrocyclic trichothecene incorporating a glucosyl unit within the trichothecene structure. The structures of the newly identified compounds were elucidated through comprehensive spectroscopic analysis combined with quantum chemical calculations. All isolated compounds demonstrated cytotoxic activity against the CAL27 and HCT116 cell lines, which are models for human oral squamous cell carcinoma and colorectal cancer, respectively. Specifically, mytoxin D (1) and mytoxin F (3) exhibited pronounced cytotoxic effects against both cancer cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 3 to 6 nmol·L-1. Moreover, compounds 1 and 3 were found to induce apoptosis in HCT116 cells by activating caspase-3.

Evaluation of Cross-Talk and Alleviate Potential of Cytotoxic Factors Induced by Deoxynivalenol in IPEC-J2 Cells Interference with Curcumin.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum, and curcumin (CUR) is a natural polyphenolic compound found in turmeric. However, the combined treatment of CUR and DON to explore the mitigating effect of CUR on DON and their combined mechanism of action is not clear. Therefore, in this study, we established four treatment groups (CON, CUR, DON and CUR + DON) to investigate their mechanism in the porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2). In addition, the cross-talk and alleviating potential of CUR interfering with DON-induced cytotoxic factors were evaluated by in vitro experiments; the results showed that CUR could effectively inhibit DON-exposed activated TNF-α/NF-κB pathway, attenuate DON-induced apoptosis, and alleviate DON-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress through PERK/CHOP pathways, which were verified at both mRNA and protein levels. In conclusion, these promising findings may contribute to the future use of CUR as a novel feed additive to protect livestock from the harmful effects of DON.

Evaluation of STAT3 Inhibition by Cancer Chemopreventive Trichothecenes Derived from Metabolites of Trichothecium roseum.

This study evaluated the ability of isolated or semisynthesized trichothecene sesquiterpenes to prevent cancer emergence and proliferation and inhibit signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) phosphorylation through in vitro assays. Trichothecinol A (TTC-A), which bears a hydroxy group at C3, exhibited greater cancer prevention, antiproliferation, and STAT3 phosphorylation inhibition effects than trichothecin (TTC), which lacks a hydroxy group at C3. Furthermore, trichothecinol B (TTC-B), which is a reduced derivative of TTC and has similar cytotoxic effect, showed substantially weaker chemoprotection and STAT3 phosphorylation inhibition effects than TTC. These results clearly indicate that the hydroxy group at C3 and carbonyl group at C8 are crucial for inducing both potent chemoprevention and STAT3 phosphorylation inhibition.

Deoxynivalenol induces m6A-mediated upregulation of p21 and growth arrest of mouse hippocampal neuron cells in vitro.

Hippocampal neurons maintain the ability of proliferation throughout life to support neurogenesis. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin that exhibits brain toxicity, yet whether and how DON affects hippocampal neurogenesis remains unknown. Here, we use mouse hippocampal neuron cells (HT-22) as a model to illustrate the effects of DON on neuron proliferation and to explore underlying mechanisms. DON exposure significantly inhibits the proliferation of HT-22 cells, which is associated with an up-regulation of cell cycle inhibitor p21 at both mRNA and protein levels. Global and site-specific m6A methylation levels on the 3'UTR of p21 mRNA are significantly increased in response to DON treatment, whereas inhibition of m6A hypermethylation significantly alleviates DON-induced cell cycle arrest. Further mechanistic studies indicate that the m6A readers YTHDF1 and IGF2BP1 are responsible for m6A-mediated increase in p21 mRNA stability. Meanwhile, 3'UTR of E3 ubiquitin ligase TRIM21 mRNA is also m6A hypermethylated, and another m6A reader YTHDF2 binds to the m6A sites, leading to decreased TRIM21 mRNA stability. Consequently, TRIM21 suppression impairs ubiquitin-mediated p21 protein degradation. Taken together, m6A-mediated upregulation of p21, at both post-transcriptional and post-translational levels, contributes to DON-induced inhibition of hippocampal neuron proliferation. These results may provide new insights for epigenetic therapy of neurodegenerative diseases.

Baicalin ameliorates the gut barrier function and intestinal microbiota of broiler chickens.

The deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated feeds can impair chicken gut barrier function, disturb the balance of the intestinal microbiota, decrease chicken growth performance and cause major economic loss. With the aim of investigating the ameliorating effects of baicalin on broiler intestinal barrier damage and gut microbiota dysbiosis induced by DON, a total of 150 Arbor Acres broilers are used in the present study. The morphological damage to the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum caused by DON is reversed by treatment with different doses of baicalin, and the expression of tight junction proteins (ZO-1, claudin-1, and occludin) is also significantly increased in the baicalin-treated groups. Moreover, the disturbance of the intestinal microbiota caused by DON-contaminated feed is altered by baicalin treatment. In particular, compared with those in the DON group, the relative abundances of Lactobacillus, Lachnoclostridium, Ruminiclostridium and other beneficial microbes in the baicalin-treated groups are significantly greater. However, the percentage of unclassified_f__Lachnospiraceae in the baicalin-treated groups is significantly decreased in the DON group. Overall, the current results demonstrate that different doses of baicalin can improve broiler intestinal barrier function and the ameliorating effects on broiler intestinal barrier damage may be related to modulations of the intestinal microbiota.

In Vitro Antimalarial Activity of Trichothecenes against Liver and Blood Stages of Plasmodium Species.

Trichothecenes (TCNs) are a large group of tricyclic sesquiterpenoid mycotoxins that have intriguing structural features and remarkable biological activities. Herein, we focused on three TCNs (anguidine, verrucarin A, and verrucarol) and their ability to target both the blood and liver stages of Plasmodium species, the parasite responsible for malaria. Anguidine and verrucarin A were found to be highly effective against the blood and liver stages of malaria, while verrucarol had no effect at the highest concentration tested. However, these compounds were also found to be cytotoxic and, thus, not selective, making them unsuitable for drug development. Nonetheless, they could be useful as chemical probes for protein synthesis inhibitors due to their direct impact on parasite synthesis processes.

N-Hydroxy-Phe-Phe, a new dipeptide, and cytotoxic macrocyclic trichothecenes from the lethal toxic mushroom Podostroma cornu-damae.

Podostroma cornu-damae, commonly referred to as the red deer's horn mushroom due to its distinct resemblance to the antlers of a deer, is a lethal toxic mushroom that causes vomiting, dehydration, diarrhea, disturbance of consciousness, and even death. In continuation of our research aiming to investigate the novel structural and/or biological principles present in Korean wild mushrooms, a new N-hydroxyphenylalanine-phenylalanine dipeptide, N-hydroxy-Phe-Phe (1), and three known macrocyclic trichothecenes, satratoxin H (2), 12'-episatratoxin H (3), and roridin F (4), were isolated from the MeOH extract of a plate culture of the poisonous mushroom P. cornu-damae. The chemical structure of the new dipeptide (1) was determined by analyzing 1D and 2D NMR spectra and high-resolution (HR)-electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy (ESIMS), along with a computational method combined with a statistical procedure (DP4+), and its absolute configuration was unambiguously assigned by quantum chemical ECD calculations. To the best of our knowledge, compound 1 is the first dipeptide found in P. cornu-damae. Upon evaluating the cytotoxicity of compounds 1-4 against four human-derived cancer cell lines namely SK-OV-3, SK-MEL-2, A549, and HCT15, 12'-episatratoxin H (3) displayed potent cytotoxic effects toward all four cell lines tested, with IC50 values ranging from 0.7 to 2.8 nM, which was found to be stronger than that of doxorubicin. Satratoxin H (2) also demonstrated moderate cytotoxic potency against all four cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 1.93 to 4.22 µM. Our findings provide experimental data supporting the potential of the poisonous mushroom P. cornu-damae as a source of anticancer agents.

Phenamacril and carbendazim regulate trichothecene mycotoxin synthesis by affecting ROS levels in F. asiaticum.

Fusarium head blight caused by Fusarium asiaticum is an important cereal crop disease, and the trichothecene mycotoxins produced by F. asiaticum can contaminate wheat grain, which is very harmful to humans and animals. To effectively control FHB in large areas, the application of fungicides is the major strategy; however, the application of different types of fungicides has varying influences on the accumulation of trichothecene mycotoxins in F. asiaticum. In this study, phenamacril inhibited trichothecene mycotoxin accumulation in F. asiaticum; however, carbendazim (N-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl-carbamic acid, methyl ester) induced trichothecene mycotoxin accumulation. Additionally, phenamacril led to a lower level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by inducing gene expression of the catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) pathways in F. asiaticum, whereas carbendazim stimulated ROS accumulation by inhibiting gene expression of the catalase and SOD pathways. Based on these results, we conclude that phenamacril and carbendazim regulate trichothecene mycotoxin synthesis by affecting ROS levels in F. asiaticum.

Deoxynivalenol affects cell metabolism in vivo and inhibits protein synthesis in IPEC-1 cells.

Deoxynivalenol is present in forage crops in concentrations that endanger animal welfare but is also found in cereal-based food. The amphipathic nature of mycotoxins allows them to cross the cell membrane and interacts with different cell organelles such as mitochondria and ribosomes. In our study, we investigated the gene expression of several genes in vivo and in vitro that are related to the metabolism. We observed a significantly higher COX5B and MHCII expression in enterocytes of DON-fed pigs compared to CON-fed pigs and a marked increase in GAPDH and SLC7A11 in DON-fed pigs, but we could not confirm this in vitro in IPEC-1. In vitro, functional metabolic analyses were performed with a seahorse analyzer. A significant increase of non-mitochondrial respiration was observed in all DON-treatment groups (50-2000 ng/mL). The oxygen consumption of cells, which were cultured on membranes, was examined with a fiber-glass electrode. Here, we found significantly lower values for DON 200- and DON 2000-treatment group. The effect on ribosomes was investigated using biorthogonal non-canonical amino acid tagging (BONCAT) to tag newly synthesized proteins. A significantly reduced amount was found in almost all DON-treatment groups. Our findings clearly show that apical and basolateral DON-treatment of epithelial cell layer results in decreasing amounts of newly synthesized proteins. Furthermore, our study shows that DON affects enterocyte metabolism in vivo and in vitro.

Myrochromanol analogues and trichothecene derivatives from the shellfish-derived fungus Albifimbriaverrucaria.

Eight myrochromanol analogues, including three pairs of epimers at C-2 with the myrochromanol scaffold and two examples of myrochromanol with sugar moiety linked at C-4, together with twelve trichothecene derivatives were isolated from the cultures of a shellfish-derived fungus Albifimbria verrucaria CD1-4. Among them, eight compounds named 2-epi-myrochromanol, ent-myrochromanol B, 4-epi-myrochromanol B, 2-epi-myrochromanol A, myrochromanosides A and B, 6',7'-erythro-(2'E,4'Z)-trichoverrol B, 3R,8S-dihyroxyroridin H were previously undescribed fungal metabolites. Their planar structures and relative configurations were established by 1D and 2D NMR, and HR-MS data analysis, and their absolute configurations were determined using the modified Mosher's method and electronic circular dichrosim calculations. Almost all isolates were evaluated for growth rate inhibition of three marine harmful microalgae Chattonella marina, Heterosigma akashiwo, and Prorocentrum donghaiense, and lethal activity to one marine zooplankton, Artemia salina. Myrochromanosides A and B exhibited obvious inhibitory against three tested microalgae with IC50 values in the range of 9.2-108.9 µM. 8α-Hydroxyroridin H, roridin A and verrucarin A exhibited significant inhibition against P. donghaiense with IC50 values of 6.1, 5.8, and 6.0 µM and toxicity against brine shrimp larvae with LC50 values of 1.4, 2.8, and 0.26 µM, respectively.

Structure Elucidation and Anti-Tumor Activities of Trichothecenes from Endophytic Fungus Fusariumsporotrichioides.

The secondary metabolites of Fusarium sporotrichioides, an endophytic fungus with anti-tumor activity isolated from Rauvolfia yunnanensis Tsiang, were investigated. Five trichothecenes, including one previously undescribed metabolite, were isolated and identified. Their structures were elucidated by means of extensive spectroscopic methods; the absolute configuration of compound 1 was determined by the ECD method. Surprisingly, 8-n-butyrylneosolaniol (3) exhibited stronger anti-tumor activity than T-2 toxin against Huh-7 cell line, with an IC50 value of 265.9 nM. 8-n-butyrylneosolaniol (3) promoted apoptosis induction in Huh-7 cells. Moreover, cell cycle analysis showed that cell cycle arrest caused by 8-n-butyrylneosolaniol (3) at the G2/M phase resulted in cell proliferation inhibition and pro-apoptotic activity. Further studies showed a significant decrease in mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and a significant increase in ROS generation, which led to the activation of caspase cascades and subsequent cleavage of PARP fragments. In conclusion, 8-n-butyrylneosolaniol (3) induced cell apoptosis in Huh-7 cells via the mitochondria-mediated apoptotic signaling pathway, which could be a leading compound for anti-tumor agents.

Toxicity and action mechanisms of silver nanoparticles against the mycotoxin-producing fungus Fusarium graminearum.

Introduction: Fusarium graminearum is a most destructive fungal pathogen that causes Fusarium head blight (FHB) disease in cereal crops, resulting in severe yield loss and mycotoxin contamination in food and feed. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are extensively applied in multiple fields due to their strong antimicrobial activity and are considered alternatives to fungicides. However, the antifungal mechanisms and the effects of AgNPs on mycotoxin production have not been well characterized. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the antifungal activity and mechanisms of AgNPs against both fungicide-resistant and fungicide-sensitive F. graminearum strains, determine their effects on mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) production, and evaluate the potential of AgNPs for FHB management in the field. Methods: Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and fluorescence microscopy were used to examine the fungal morphological changes caused by AgNPs. In addition, RNA-Seq, qRT-PCR, and western blotting were conducted to detect gene transcription and DON levels. Results: AgNPs with a diameter of 2 nm exhibited effective antifungal activity against both fungicide-sensitive and fungicide-resistant strains of F. graminearum. Further studies showed that AgNP application could impair the development, cell structure, cellular energy utilization, and metabolism pathways of this fungus. RNA-Seq analysis and sensitivity determination revealed that AgNP treatment significantly induced the expression of azole-related ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters without compromising the control efficacy of azoles in F. graminearum. AgNP treatment stimulated the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), subsequently induced transcription of DON biosynthesis genes, toxisome formation, and mycotoxin production. Conclusion: This study revealed the underlying mechanisms of AgNPs against F. graminearum, determined their effects on DON production, and evaluated the potential of AgNPs for controlling fungicide-resistant F. graminearum strains. Together, our findings suggest that combinations of AgNPs with DON-reducing fungicides could be used for the management of FHB in the future.

ZEA and DON inhibited inflammation after L. monocytogenes infection and induced ribosomal hyperfunction.

The complex microbial community in food environment is a major problem of human or animal health and safety. Mycotoxins and food-borne bacteria can both induce inflammation in the body and cause a series of changes in biological functions. In this study, mice were gavaged with low doses of ZEA, DON, or ZEA + DON, and then infected with L. monocytogenes. A cytokine microarray, including 40 inflammation-related serum cytokines, and proteomics were used to verify the effects of ZEA, DON, and ZEA + DON on the host inflammation and biological function after L. monocytogenes infection. The results showed that mononucleosis after bacterial infection was inhibited by ZEA, DON, and ZEA + DON, while the balance of macrophage differentiation was shifted toward M2-type. ZEA, DON, and ZEA + DON decreased the levels of serum proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and IL-12 after infection. In addition, the signal of the NF-κB pathway was inhibited. Proteomic results showed that ZEA, DON, and ZEA + DON led to biological dysfunction in ribosomal and metabolic cells, primarily leading to abnormal ribosomal hyperfunction. This study showed that ZEA, DON, and ZEA + DON can aggravate disease progression by inhibiting the inflammatory response following foodborne bacterial infection. These metabolites may also disrupt normal biological functions, which may lead to ribosomal hyperfunction, making bacterial clearance more difficult.

New Trichothecenes Isolated from the Marine Algicolous Fungus Trichoderma brevicompactum.

Eight trichothecenes, including four new compounds 1-4 and four known entities 5-8, together with one known cyclonerane (9) were isolated from the solid-state fermentation of Trichoderma brevicompactum NTU439 isolated from the marine alga Mastophora rosea. The structures of 1-9 were determined by 1D/2D NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), MS (mass spectrometry), and IR (infrared spectroscopy) spectroscopic data. All of the compounds were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against HCT-116, PC-3, and SK-Hep-1 cancer cells by the SRB assay, and compound 8 showed promising cytotoxic activity against all three cancer cell lines with the IC50 values of 3.3 ± 0.3, 5.3 ± 0.3, and 1.8 ± 0.8 µM, respectively. Compounds 1-2, 4-6, and 7-8 potently inhibited LPS-induced NO production, and compounds 5 and 8 showed markedly inhibited gelatinolysis of MMP-9 in S1 protein-stimulated THP-1 monocytes.

Diacetoxyscirpenol, a Fusarium exometabolite, prevents efficiently the incidence of the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica.

BACKGROUND: Certain Fusarium exometabolites have been reported to inhibit seed germination of the cereal-parasitizing witchweed, Striga hermonthica, in vitro. However, it is unknown if these exometabolites will consistently prevent S. hermonthica incidence in planta. The study screened a selection of known, highly phytotoxic Fusarium exometabolites, in identifying the most potent/efficient candidate (i.e., having the greatest effect at minimal concentration) to completely hinder S. hermonthica seed germination in vitro and incidence in planta, without affecting the host crop development and yield. RESULTS: In vitro germination assays of the tested Fusarium exometabolites (i.e., 1,4-naphthoquinone, equisetin, fusaric acid, hymeglusin, neosolaniol (Neo), T-2 toxin (T-2) and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS)) as pre-Striga seed conditioning treatments at 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 µM, revealed that only DAS, out of all tested exometabolites, completely inhibited S. hermonthica seed germination at each concentration. It was followed by T-2 and Neo, as from 10 to 20 µM respectively. The remaining exometabolites reduced S. hermonthica seed germination as from 20 µM (P < 0. 0001). In planta assessment (in a S. hermonthica-sorghum parasitic system) of the exometabolites at 20 µM showed that, although, none of the tested exometabolites affected sorghum aboveground dry biomass (P > 0.05), only DAS completely prevented S. hermonthica incidence. Following a 14-d incubation of DAS in the planting soil substrate, bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and fungal 18S rRNA gene copy numbers of the soil microbial community were enhanced; which coincided with complete degradation of DAS in the substrate. Metabolic footprinting revealed that the S. hermonthica mycoherbicidal agent, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. strigae (isolates Foxy-2, FK3), did not produce DAS; a discovery that corresponded with underexpression of key genes (Tri5, Tri4) necessary for Fusarium trichothecene biosynthesis (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Among the tested Fusarium exometabolites, DAS exhibited the most promising herbicidal potential against S. hermonthica. Thus, it could serve as a new biocontrol agent for efficient S. hermonthica management. Further examination of DAS specific mode of action against the target weed S. hermonthica at low concentrations (≤ 20 µM), as opposed to non-target soil organisms, is required.

Neurotoxic Potential of Deoxynivalenol in Murine Brain Cell Lines and Primary Hippocampal Cultures.

Chronic exposure to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) from grain-based food and feed affects human and animal health. Known consequences include entereopathogenic and immunotoxic defects; however, the neurotoxic potential of DON has only come into focus more recently due to the observation of behavioural disorders in exposed farm animals. DON can cross the blood-brain barrier and interfere with the homeostasis/functioning of the nervous system, but the underlying mechanisms of action remain elusive. Here, we have investigated the impact of DON on mouse astrocyte and microglia cell lines, as well as on primary hippocampal cultures by analysing different toxicological endpoints. We found that DON has an impact on the viability of both glial cell types, as shown by a significant decrease of metabolic activity, and a notable cytotoxic effect, which was stronger in the microglia. In astrocytes, DON caused a G1 phase arrest in the cell cycle and a decrease of cyclic-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels. The pro-inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α was secreted in the microglia in response to DON exposure. Furthermore, the intermediate filaments of the astrocytic cytoskeleton were disturbed in primary hippocampal cultures, and the dendrite lengths of neurons were shortened. The combined results indicated DON's considerable potential to interfere with the brain cell physiology, which helps explain the observed in vivo neurotoxicological effects.

EPA and DHA confer protection against deoxynivalenol-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and iron imbalance in IPEC-1 cells.

This study assessed the molecular mechanism of EPA or DHA protection against intestinal porcine epithelial cell line 1 (IPEC-1) cell damage induced by deoxynivalenol (DON). The cells were divided into six groups, including the CON group, the EPA group, the DHA group, the DON group, the EPA + DON group and the DHA + DON group. RNA sequencing was used to investigate the potential mechanism, and qRT-PCR was employed to verify the expression of selected genes. Changes in ultrastructure were used to estimate pathological changes and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) injury in IPEC-1 cells. Transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1) was tested by ELISA. Fe2+ and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents were estimated by spectrophotometry, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) was assayed by fluorospectrophotometry. RNA sequencing analysis showed that EPA and DHA had a significant effect on the expression of genes involved in ER stress and iron balance during DON-induced cell injury. The results showed that DON increased ER damage, the content of MDA and ROS, the ratio of X-box binding protein 1s (XBP-1s)/X-box binding protein 1u (XBP-1u), the concentration of Fe2+ and the activity of TFR1. However, the results also showed that EPA and DHA decreased the ratio of XBP-1s/XBP-1u to relieve DON-induced ER damage of IPEC-1 cells. Moreover, EPA and DHA (especially DHA) reversed the factors related to iron balance. It can be concluded that EPA and DHA reversed IPEC-1 cell damage induced by DON. DHA has the potential to protect IPEC-1 cells from DON-induced iron imbalance by inhibiting ER stress.

MicroRNA Expression Profiling in Porcine Liver, Jejunum and Serum upon Dietary DON Exposure Reveals Candidate Toxicity Biomarkers.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a frequent mycotoxin worldwide, impairs human and animal health. The response of microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs, to DON has been scarcely investigated, but holds remarkable potential for biomarker applications. Hence, we aimed to investigate DON-induced changes in the microRNA expression in porcine liver, jejunum and serum by combining targeted and untargeted analyses. Piglets received uncontaminated feed or feed containing 900 µg/kg and 2500 µg/kg DON for four weeks, followed by a wash-out period. In tissue, only slight changes in microRNA expression were detected, with ssc-miR-10b being downregulated in liver of DON-exposed piglets. In serum, several microRNAs were differentially expressed upon DON exposure, four of which were validated by qPCR (ssc-miR-16, ssc-miR-128, ssc-miR-451, ssc-miR-205). The serum microRNA response to DON increased over time and declined after removal of contaminated diets. Receiver operating curve analyses for individual microRNAs were significant, and a combination of the four microRNAs increased the predictive capacity for DON exposure. Predicted microRNA target genes showed enrichment of several pathways including PIK3-AKT, Wnt/ß-catenin, and adherens junctions. This study gives, for the first time, a comprehensive view of the porcine microRNA response to DON, providing a basis for future research on microRNAs as biomarkers for mycotoxins.

In Vitro Assay of Translation Inhibition by Trichothecenes Using a Commercially Available System.

Trichothecenes are a family of major secondary metabolites produced by some common filamentous fungi, including plant pathogenic and entomopathogenic fungi. It may be considered difficult to conduct a comparison between the toxicities of trichothecenes with consideration of different conditions and cell lines. In the current study, we developed an in vitro assay based on a commercially available system to estimate the translation inhibition, that is, the main toxicity, of trichothecenes. The assay was applied to estimate the inhibition of protein synthesis by trichothecenes. Initially, we examined the assay using trichothecene dissolved in water followed by an assessment of trichothecene solutions dissolved in acetonitrile. The obtained data showed that the assay tolerated the small amount of acetonitrile. The assay examined in this study has the advantages of a short operation time (one day), ease of use, and data stability, as it is a non-cell-based assay whose components are commercially available. It is expected that this assay will contribute to the evaluation of the toxicity of a vast number of trichothecenes.

Artepillin C, a major component of Brazilian green propolis, inhibits endoplasmic reticulum stress and protein aggregation.

Propolis, a compound produced by honeybees, has long been used in food and beverages to improve health and prevent diseases. We previously reported that the ethanol extracts of Brazilian green propolis and its constituents artepillin C, kaempferide, and kaempferol mitigate oxidative stress-induced cell death via oxytosis/ferroptosis. Here, we investigated the potential of Brazilian green propolis and its constituents to protect against endoplasmic reticulum stress in the mouse hippocampal cell line HT22. Ethanol extracts of Brazilian green propolis, artepillin C, and kaempferol attenuated tunicamycin-induced unfolded protein response and cell death. Interestingly, artepillin C inhibited both tunicamycin-induced protein aggregation in HT22 cells and the spontaneous protein aggregation of mutant canine superoxide dismutase 1 (E40K-SOD1-EGFP) in Neuro2a cells. These findings indicate that in addition to oxidative stress, the ethanol extracts of Brazilian green propolis help prevent endoplasmic reticulum stress-related neuronal cell death, which is proposedly involved in several neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, artepillin C, a major constituent of Brazilian green propolis, may exhibit chemical chaperone-like properties.