Evaluation of Neuroprotective Effect of Gut Microbe in Parkinson's Disease: An In Silico and In Vivo Approach.

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder marked by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra region of the brain. Aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-synuclein) is a contributing factor to Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. The objective of this study is to investigate the neuroprotective effects of gut microbes on α-synuclein aggregation using both in silico and in vivo approaches. We focussed on the interaction between α-synuclein and metabolites released by gut bacteria that protect from PD. We employed three probiotic microbe strains against α-synuclein protein: Lactobacillus casei, Escherichia coli, and Bacillus subtilis, with their chosen PDB IDs being Dihydrofolate reductase (3DFR), methionine synthetase (6BM5), and tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (3PRH), respectively. Using HEX Dock 6.0 software, we examined the interactions between these proteins. Among the various metabolites, methionine synthetase produced by E. coli showed potential interactions with α-synuclein. To further evaluate the neuroprotective benefits of E. coli, an in vivo investigation was performed using a rotenone-induced Parkinsonian mouse model. The motor function of the animals was assessed through behavioural tests, and oxidative stress and neurotransmitter levels were also examined. The results demonstrated that, compared to the rotenone-induced PD mouse model, the rate of neurodegeneration was considerably reduced in mice treated with E. coli. Additionally, histopathological studies provided evidence of the neuroprotective effects of E. coli. In conclusion, this study lays the groundwork for future research, suggesting that gut bacteria may serve as potential therapeutic agents in the development of medications to treat Parkinson's disease. fig. 1.

Tryptophanyl-tRNA Synthetase as a Potential Therapeutic Target.

Tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (WRS) is an essential enzyme that catalyzes the ligation of tryptophan (Trp) to its cognate tRNAtrp during translation via aminoacylation. Interestingly, WRS also plays physiopathological roles in diseases including sepsis, cancer, and autoimmune and brain diseases and has potential as a pharmacological target and therapeutic. However, WRS is still generally regarded simply as an enzyme that produces Trp in polypeptides; therefore, studies of the pharmacological effects, therapeutic targets, and mechanisms of action of WRS are still at an emerging stage. This review summarizes the involvement of WRS in human diseases. We hope that this will encourage further investigation into WRS as a potential target for drug development in various pathological states including infection, tumorigenesis, and autoimmune and brain diseases.

Tryptophan Depletion Modulates Tryptophanyl-tRNA Synthetase-Mediated High-Affinity Tryptophan Uptake into Human Cells.

The novel high-affinity tryptophan (Trp)-selective transport system is present at elevated levels in human interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-treated and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1)-expressing cells. High-affinity Trp uptake into cells results in extracellular Trp depletion and immune suppression. We have previously shown that both IDO1 and tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TrpRS), whose expression levels are increased by IFN-γ, have a crucial function in high-affinity Trp uptake into human cells. Here, we aimed to elucidate the relationship between TrpRS and IDO1 in high-affinity Trp uptake. We demonstrated that overexpression of IDO1 in HeLa cells drastically enhances high-affinity Trp uptake upon addition of purified TrpRS protein to uptake assay buffer. We also clarified that high-affinity Trp uptake by Trp-starved cells is significantly enhanced by the addition of TrpRS protein to the assay buffer. Moreover, we showed that high-affinity Trp uptake is also markedly elevated by the addition of TrpRS protein to the assay buffer of cells overexpressing another Trp-metabolizing enzyme, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2). Taken together, we conclude that Trp deficiency is crucial for high-affinity Trp uptake mediated by extracellular TrpRS.

Tryptophanyl-tRNA Synthetase 1 Signals Activate TREM-1 via TLR2 and TLR4.

Tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase 1 (WARS1) is an endogenous ligand of mammalian Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and TLR4. Microarray data, using mRNA from WARS1-treated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), had indicated WARS1 to mainly activate innate inflammatory responses. However, exact molecular mechanism remains to be understood. The triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells (TREM)-1 is an amplifier of pro-inflammatory processes. We found WARS1 to significantly activate TREM-1 at both mRNA and protein levels, along with its cell surface expression and secretion in macrophages. WARS1 stimulated TREM-1 production via TLR2 and TLR4, mediated by both MyD88 and TRIF, since targeted deletion of TLR4, TLR2, MyD88, and TRIF mostly abrogated TREM-1 activation. Furthermore, WARS1 promoted TREM-1 downstream phosphorylation of DAP12, Syk, and AKT. Knockdown of TREM-1 and inhibition of Syk kinase significantly suppressed the activation of inflammatory signaling loop from MyD88 and TRIF, leading to p38 MAPK, ERK, and NF-κB inactivation. Finally, MyD88, TRIF, and TREM-1 signaling pathways were shown to be cooperatively involved in WARS1-triggered massive production of IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-ß, MIP-1α, MCP-1, and CXCL2, where activation of Syk kinase was crucial. Taken together, our data provided a new insight into WARS1's strategy to amplify innate inflammatory responses via TREM-1.

A novel tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase gene confers high-level resistance to indolmycin.

Indolmycin, a potential antibacterial drug, competitively inhibits bacterial tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetases. An effort to identify indolmycin resistance genes led to the discovery of a gene encoding an indolmycin-resistant isoform of tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase. Overexpression of this gene in an indolmycin-sensitive strain increased the indolmycin MIC 60-fold. Its transcription and distribution in various bacterial genera were assessed. The level of resistance conferred by this gene was compared to that of a known indolmycin resistance gene and to those of genes with resistance-conferring point mutations.

Tryptamine induces tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase-mediated neurodegeneration with neurofibrillary tangles in human cell and mouse models.

The neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other taupathies include neurofibrillary tangles and plaques. Despite the fact that only 2-10% of AD cases are associated with genetic mutations, no nontransgenic or metabolic models have been generated to date. The findings of tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TrpRS) in plaques of the AD brain were reported recently by the authors. Here it is shown that expression of cytoplasmic-TrpRS is inversely correlated with neurofibrillary degeneration, whereas a nonionic detergent-insoluble presumably aggregated TrpRS is simultaneously accumulated in human cells treated by tryptamine, a metabolic tryptophan analog that acts as a competitive inhibitor of TrpRS. TrpRSN- terminal peptide self-assembles in double-helical fibrils in vitro. Herein, tryptamine causes neuropathy characterized by motor and behavioral deficits, hippocampal neuronal loss, neurofibrillary tangles, amyloidosis, and glucose decrease in mice. Tryptamine induced the formation of helical fibrillary tangles in both hippocampal neurons and glia. Taken together with the authors' previous findings of tryptamine-induced nephrotoxicity and filamentous tangle formation in kidney cells, the authors' data indicates a general role of tryptamine in cell degeneration and loss. It is concluded that tryptamine as a component of a normal diet can induce neurodegeneration at the concentrations, which might be consumed along with food. Tryptophan-dependent tRNAtrp aminoacylation catalyzed by TrpRS can be inhibited by its substrate tryptophan at physiological concentrations was demonstrated. These findings indicate that the dietary supplementation with tryptophan as a tryptamine competitor may not counteract the deleterious influence of tryptamine. The pivotal role of TrpRS in protecting against neurodegeneration is suggested, providing an insight into the pathogenesis and a possible treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

A short peptide insertion crucial for angiostatic activity of human tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase.

Human tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TrpRS) is secreted into the extracellular region of vascular endothelial cells. The splice variant form (mini TrpRS) functions in vascular endothelial cell apoptosis as an angiostatic cytokine. In contrast, the closely related human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (TyrRS) functions as an angiogenic cytokine in its truncated form (mini TyrRS). Here, we determined the crystal structure of human mini TrpRS at a resolution of 2.3 A and compared the structure with those of prokaryotic TrpRS and human mini TyrRS. Deletion of the tRNA anticodon-binding (TAB) domain insertion, consisting of eight residues in the human TrpRS, abolished the enzyme's apoptotic activity for endothelial cells, whereas its translational catalysis and cell-binding activities remained unchanged. Thus, we have identified the inserted peptide motif that activates the angiostatic signaling.

Activation of angiogenic signaling pathways by two human tRNA synthetases.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases establish the rules of the genetic code by joining amino acids to tRNAs that bear the anticodon triplets corresponding to the attached amino acids. The enzymes are thought to be among the earliest proteins to appear, in the transition from a putative RNA world to the theater of proteins. Over their long evolution, the enzymes have acquired additional functions that typically require specialized insertions or domain fusions. Recently, fragments of the closely related human tyrosyl- and tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetases were discovered to be active in angiogenesis signaling pathways. One synthetase fragment has proangiogenic activity, while the other is antiangiogenic. Activity was demonstrated in cell-based assays in vitro and in vivo in the chick embryo, and in the neonatal and adult mouse. The full-length, native enzymes are inactive in these same assays. Activation of angiogenesis activity requires fragment production from the native enzymes by protease cleavage or by translation of alternatively spliced pre-mRNA. Thus, these tRNA synthetases link translation to a major cell-signaling pathway in mammalian cells. The results with animals suggest that therapeutic applications are possible with these tRNA synthetases.

A fragment of human TrpRS as a potent antagonist of ocular angiogenesis.

Pathological angiogenesis contributes directly to profound loss of vision associated with many diseases of the eye. Recent work suggests that human tyrosyl- and tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetases (TrpRS) link protein synthesis to signal transduction pathways including angiogenesis. In this study, we show that a recombinant form of a COOH-terminal fragment of TrpRS is a potent antagonist of vascular endothelial growth factor-induced angiogenesis in a mouse model and of naturally occurring retinal angiogenesis in the neonatal mouse. The angiostatic activity is dose-dependent in both systems. The recombinant fragment is similar in size to one generated naturally by alternative splicing and can be produced by proteolysis of the full-length protein. In contrast, the full-length protein is inactive as an antagonist of angiogenesis. These results suggest that fragments of TrpRS, as naturally occurring and potentially nonimmunogenic anti-angiogenics, can be used for the treatment of neovascular eye diseases.

A human aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase as a regulator of angiogenesis.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases catalyze the first step of protein synthesis. It was shown recently that human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (TyrRS) can be split into two fragments having distinct cytokine activities, thereby linking protein synthesis to cytokine signaling pathways. Tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TrpRS) is a close homologue of TyrRS. A natural fragment, herein designated as mini TrpRS, was shown by others to be produced by alternative splicing. Production of this fragment is reported to be stimulated by IFN-gamma, a cytokine that also stimulates production of angiostatic factors. Mini TrpRS is shown here to be angiostatic in a mammalian cell culture system, the chicken embryo, and two independent angiogenesis assays in the mouse. The full-length enzyme is inactive in the same assays. Thus, protein synthesis may be linked to the regulation of angiogenesis by a natural fragment of TrpRS.

Interferon induction of human tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase safeguards the synthesis of tryptophan-rich immune-system proteins: a hypothesis.

Ever since the discovery that the human tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TrpRS)-encoding gene is induced by interferon (IFN) [J. Fleckner et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88 (1991) 11520-11524] and contains IFN-response regulatory elements [Frolova et al., Gene 128 (1993) 237-245], the biological rationale for this induction has remained unresolved. A survey of immune system proteins in this study reveals that the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens, beta-2-microglobulin (beta MG) and complement factor B, which are known to be induced by IFN, together with immunoglobulins (Ig) are all exceptionally enriched in Trp residues, as compared to human proteins in general. It also reveals the conservation of a sequence motif, CX10-17 WX26-62C, in Ig domains. The conservation of this sequence motif and the utility of Trp residues within antigen-binding sites clearly contribute to the Trp enrichment in Ig. These observations suggest a biological rationale for the induction of TrpRS by IFN in safeguarding Trp incorporation for the IFN-enhanced synthesis of immunological molecules.

Effects of cytokines on the gamma interferon-induced tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase expression by human keratinocytes.

Incubation of human keratinocytes with gamma interferon (gamma-IFN) has been shown to potently induce the synthesis of a 53 kDa protein which was recently identified as tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TRS). However, in spite of the high sensitivity of cultured keratinocytes to TRS induction by gamma-IFN, the study of inflammatory skin lesions has allowed the detection of the protein only in a few cases, suggesting regulatory mechanisms from soluble endogenous mediators with antagonistic activity on the induction of TRS by gamma-IFN. Among these mediators, we wondered whether cytokines selected for possible anti-inflammatory activity and potentially derived from activated resident skin cells, such as IL-4, IL-10, TNF-alpha and TGF-beta, may be involved in the modulation of the keratinocyte TRS expression. To assess this possibility, we investigated the modulation of the synthesis of TRS by human cultured keratinocytes upon stimulation by various gamma-IFN/cytokine combinations. The effects were evaluated by immunoblotting assay revealed by enhanced chemiluminescence, with the aid of a specific antibody to the TRS protein. Results failed to demonstrate any effect of the tested cytokines, whether on the basal level of the TRS, or on the gamma-IFN-induced enzyme expression in keratinocytes. It is thus unlikely that such cytokines can account for the infrequency of the TRS detection in inflammatory skin processes. Further investigations of alternative working hypothesis should help elucidate the regulation of TRS in human keratinocytes.

Are the tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase and the peptide-chain-release factor from higher eukaryotes one and the same protein?

Recently, cDNA clones encoding the bovine (b) [M. Garret, B. Pajot, V. Trézéguet, J. Labouesse, M. Merle, J.-C. Gandar, J.-P. Benedetto, M.-L. Sallafranque, J. Alterio, M. Gueguen, C. Sarger, B. Labouesse and J. Bonnet (1991) Biochemistry 30, 7809-7817] and human (h) [L. Yu. Frolova, M. A. Sudomoina, A. Yu. Grigorieva, O. L. Zinovieva and L. L. Kisselev (1991) Gene 109, 291-296] tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetases (TrpRS) were sequenced; the deduced amino acid sequences exhibit typical structural features of class I aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases [G. Eriani, M. Delarue, O. Poch, J. Gangloff and D. Moras (1990) Nature 237, 203-206] and limited, although significant, similarity with bacterial TrpRS. Independently, it was shown that a major protein whose synthesis is stimulated in human cell cultures by interferon gamma [J. Fleckner, H. H. Rasmussen and J. Justesen (1991) Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 88, 11,520-11,524], and interferons gamma or alpha [B. Y. Rubins, S. L. Anderson, L. Xing, R. J. Powell and W. P. Tate (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 226, 24,245-24,248], exhibits TrpRS activity and an amino acid sequence identical to that of hTrpRS. The amino acid sequences of bTrpRS and hTrpRS are highly similar and are surprisingly very similar to the amino acid sequence deduced from a cloned and sequenced cDNA reported to encode rabbit (r) peptide-chain-release factor (RF) [C. C. Lee, W. J. Craigen, D. M. Muzny, E. Harlow and C. T. Caskey (1990) Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 87, 3508-3512]. This close similarity between mammalian TrpRS and cloned RF is unexpected given the distinct functional properties of these proteins. Consequently, the question arises as to whether the mammalian TrpRS and RF activities reside on identical or very similar polypeptides. Alternatively, one may assume that the cloned rabbit cDNA encodes a protein other than rRF. Several properties (immunochemical, biochemical and physico-chemical) of mammalian TrpRS and RF have been compared. rTrpRS and rRF have distinct thermostability behaviours, and dissimilar chromatographic profiles on phosphocellulose. Both the anti-bTrpRS polyclonal antibodies and the monoclonal antibody Am2 strongly inhibit the bTrpRS and hTrpRS aminoacylation activities, but not the rRF activity. In addition, neither bTrpRS nor hTrpRS exhibit RF activity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

An interferon-induced protein with release factor activity is a tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase.

Interferon gamma induces expression of a protein termed IFP 53 according to its molecular weight of 53 kDa. IFP 53 shows significant sequence homology to rabbit peptide chain release factor as well as to bovine tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase. IFP 53 has been shown to possess release factor activity for the UGA stop codon. We demonstrate here, by using a recombinant IFP 53 fusion protein, that IFP 53 tryptophanylates tRNA. These data indicate that IFP 53 is a protein with two activities: peptide chain termination and aminoacylation.

[Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (codases) and their noncanonical functions]. / Aminoatsil-tRNK sintetazy (kodazy) i ik nekanonicheskie funtstii.

The aim of this review is to summarize the data obtained in the author's laboratory during the last decade. The main objects of these investigations were mammalian aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, mainly bovine tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (EC 6.1.1.2). The data are discussed and compared with those described in literature. In the course of these studies it turned out that some properties of mammalian aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases for instance, nuclear location of some of the synthetases, presence of extra-domain in bovine tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase capable of catalyzing hydrolysis of ATP and GTP in the absence of Zn2+ ions and normal aminoacylation capacity, ability to bind to one of the glycolytic enzymes, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, formation of aminoacylated and pyrophosphorylated forms of tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase etc., seem to be unrelated to the main function of the synthetases, catalysis of aminoacyl-tRNA formation, and, therefore, might be classified as noncanonical ones. Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases indicates the multipotential nature of the latter.

Molecular and cellular studies of tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetases using monoclonal antibodies. Remarkable variations in the content of tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase in the pancreas of different mammals.

The content of Trp-tRNA synthetase in pancreas and liver of cattle, sheep, swine, rat, rabbit and man was assayed by direct radioimmunoblotting with a 125I-labelled monoclonal antibody Am1, specifically interacting with any eukaryotic Trp-tRNA synthetase. Its content in the organs studied, with the exception of bovine and sheep pancreas, was found to be 0.002-0.012% of total proteins. The enzyme content in bovine pancreas was about 0.2% of total proteins, i.e. 70 times higher than in bovine liver; similar correlations were found for sheep. The Trp-tRNA synthetase levels in each organ varied from animal to animal of the same species by not more than a factor of four; these individual variations cannot affect the conclusion about the profound differences in the levels of the enzyme in pancreases of Ruminantia and of the other mammalians. As shown by indirect immunofluorescence technique, bovine Trp-tRNA synthetase is mainly located in the exocrine part of the pancreas. Moreover, the immunoreactive material is detectable also in bovine (not human) pancreatic juice. The abnormally high Trp-tRNA synthetase content in the ruminant pancreas may be connected with unknown function(s) of this protein somehow related to the peculiarities of digestion of these mammals.

[Role of zinc ions in the functioning of bovine tryptophanyl-tRNA-synthetase]. / Rol' ionov tsinka v funktsionirovanii triptofanil-tRNK-sintetazy krupnogo rogatogo skota.

By means of atomic absorption spectroscopy up to 0.9 Zn2+ atom per molecule of bovine tryptophanyl-tRNA-synthetase (E. C. 6.1.1.2) was found. Treatment of the enzyme with orthophenanthroline (Zn2+-chelating agent) or prolonged dialysis leading to the removal of bound Zn2+ causes inactivation of the enzyme whereas the addition of Zn2+ reactivates it. Kinetic analysis of the inhibiting action of orthophenanthroline at various concentrations of tryptophan, ATP and tRNA leads to the conclusion that removal of Zn2+ prevents the binding of the ATP molecule to tryptophanyl-tRNA-synthetase. By means of chemical modification it is shown that exposed histidine residues and the carboxylic groups of the enzyme participate in Zn2+ binding. According to circular dichroism data removal of Zn2+ has no influence on the secondary structure although some local alterations of the ternary structure are revealed.