Estudos estruturais de fragmentos do trocador de Na+/Ca2+ por RMN em solução / Structural studies of fragments derived from the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger by solution NMR

Proteínas de membrana estão envolvidas em processos fisiológicos essenciais como, por exemplo, a manutenção do equilíbrio iônico e sinalização intracelular. No entanto, apesar do envolvimento em inúmeros processos fisiológicos e de grande interesse farmacêutico, o estudo estrutural de proteínas de membrana ainda é um processo custoso e muito mais complexo do que o estudo estrutural de proteínas solúveis. Os trocadores de Na+/Ca2+ são proteínas de membrana que atuam na manutenção da homeostase de Ca2+ intracelular e estão envolvidos em processos patológicos como doenças cardíacas. Estes trocadores estão presentes em diversas espécies de mamíferos (NCX) e insetos, por exemplo, na mosca Drosophila melanogaster (CALX). A topologia destas proteínas é constituída de dois domínios. O domínio transmembranar, que contém dois segmentos de 5 hélices transmembranares (TMH) e é responsável por promover o transporte específico de íons Ca2+ e Na+ através da membrana, e o domínio citoplasmático, responsável por regular a atividade do trocador. O domínio citoplasmático consiste de uma alça que contém dois domínios sensores de Ca2+ intracelular (CBD1 e CBD2). Trabalhos mostraram que o trocador CALX é inibido pela ligação de Ca em CBD1, enquanto que trocadores NCX são ativados. As regiões citosólicas que conectam CBD1 e CBD2 à TMH5 e TMH6 são conservadas e ainda não foram caracterizadas estruturalmente. Adjacente à TMH5 há um segmento anfipático, denominado exchanger inhibitory peptide (XIP), que está envolvido no mecanismo de regulação do trocador. Na ausência de dados estruturais do CALX completo, o estudo de TMH5-XIP poderá aumentar a compreensão sobre a estrutura e o funcionamento do trocador. A construção TMH5-XIP foi fusionada à MBP no N-terminal e a uma sequência de 8 histidinas no C-terminal. Apesar da expressão da proteína de fusão ter sido bem sucedida, problemas de precipitação e ineficiência durante a clivagem da conexão com a MBP impediram a conclusão dos estudos estruturais. Logo, uma construção menor, contendo apenas a região equivalente ao XIP, foi estudada por espectroscopia de RMN em solução e dicroísmo circular. XIP forma uma 310-hélice a baixa temperatura, 7 oC, que se desestabiliza a maior temperatura, 27 oC. Estes dados permitem a formulação de hipóteses sobre o papel de XIP no mecanismo de regulação do domínio transmembranar de CALX

Membrane proteins are involved in essential physiological processes such as maintenance of the ionic balance and intracellular signaling. However, despite their role in numerous physiological processes of well-recognized pharmaceutical relevance, structural studies of membrane proteins remain being more complex than structural studies of globular proteins. Na+/Ca2+ exchangers (NCX) are membrane proteins that play essential roles in the maintenance of the intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis. Not surprisingly, the NCXs are involved in pathologies such as heart diseases. These exchangers are present in several species of mammals (NCX) and insects, for example, in the fly Drosophila melanogaster (CALX). The topology of these proteins consists of a transmembrane and a hydrophilic domain. The transmembrane domain corresponds to two segments of 5 transmembrane helices (TMH) forming a 10-helix bundle that is responsible for the specific transport of Ca2+ and Na+ across the cellular membrane. The hydrophilic domain is composed of a large cytoplasmic loop, which is associated with the regulation of the ion exchange activity of the transmembrane domain. The loop contains two Ca2+-sensors domains, CBD1 and CBD2, and uncharacterized regions. Studies showed that Ca2+ binding to CBD1 inhibits the CALX, whereas it activates the NCX. The juxtamembrane cytosolic regions linking the CBD1 and CBD2 domains to the TMH5 and TMH6, respectively, are highly conserved but have not yet been structurally characterized. The segment near TMH5 is amphipathic, and it is also called exchanger inhibitory peptide (XIP). In the absence of a three-dimensional structure of the complete CALX, the study of TMH5-XIP may contribute to our understanding of the structure and operation of the exchanger. In order to study TMH5-XIP, it was fused to an MBP tag at the N-terminus, and to a sequence of 8 histidines at the C-terminus. Although the expression of the fusion protein was successful, precipitation and inefficient MBP-tag cleavage prevented the isolation of pure TMH5-XIP for structural studies. Hence, a smaller construct, containing only the region equivalent to XIP, was studied by NMR spectroscopy in solution and circular dichroism. The structure assumed by XIP in solution is temperature dependent, being intrinsically disordered at 27 C or a 310-helix at 7 C, respectively. These findings allowed us to infer how XIP could participate in the CALX regulation mechanism

Estudos estruturais de fragmentos do trocador de Na+/Ca2+ por RMN em solução / Structural studies of fragments derived from the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger by solution NMR

Proteínas de membrana estão envolvidas em processos fisiológicos essenciais como, por exemplo, a manutenção do equilíbrio iônico e sinalização intracelular. No entanto, apesar do envolvimento em inúmeros processos fisiológicos e de grande interesse farmacêutico, o estudo estrutural de proteínas de membrana ainda é um processo custoso e muito mais complexo do que o estudo estrutural de proteínas solúveis. Os trocadores de Na+/Ca2+ são proteínas de membrana que atuam na manutenção da homeostase de Ca2+ intracelular e estão envolvidos em processos patológicos como doenças cardíacas. Estes trocadores estão presentes em diversas espécies de mamíferos (NCX) e insetos, por exemplo, na mosca Drosophila melanogaster (CALX). A topologia destas proteínas é constituída de dois domínios. O domínio transmembranar, que contém dois segmentos de 5 hélices transmembranares (TMH) e é responsável por promover o transporte específico de íons Ca2+ e Na+ através da membrana, e o domínio citoplasmático, responsável por regular a atividade do trocador. O domínio citoplasmático consiste de uma alça que contém dois domínios sensores de Ca2+ intracelular (CBD1 e CBD2). Trabalhos mostraram que o trocador CALX é inibido pela ligação de Ca em CBD1, enquanto que trocadores NCX são ativados. As regiões citosólicas que conectam CBD1 e CBD2 à TMH5 e TMH6 são conservadas e ainda não foram caracterizadas estruturalmente. Adjacente à TMH5 há um segmento anfipático, denominado exchanger inhibitory peptide (XIP), que está envolvido no mecanismo de regulação do trocador. Na ausência de dados estruturais do CALX completo, o estudo de TMH5-XIP poderá aumentar a compreensão sobre a estrutura e o funcionamento do trocador. A construção TMH5-XIP foi fusionada à MBP no N-terminal e a uma sequência de 8 histidinas no C-terminal. Apesar da expressão da proteína de fusão ter sido bem sucedida, problemas de precipitação e ineficiência durante a clivagem da conexão com a MBP impediram a conclusão dos estudos estruturais. Logo, uma construção menor, contendo apenas a região equivalente ao XIP, foi estudada por espectroscopia de RMN em solução e dicroísmo circular. XIP forma uma 310-hélice a baixa temperatura, 7 oC, que se desestabiliza a maior temperatura, 27 oC. Estes dados permitem a formulação de hipóteses sobre o papel de XIP no mecanismo de regulação do domínio transmembranar de CALX

Membrane proteins are involved in essential physiological processes such as maintenance of the ionic balance and intracellular signaling. However, despite their role in numerous physiological processes of well-recognized pharmaceutical relevance, structural studies of membrane proteins remain being more complex than structural studies of globular proteins. Na+/Ca2+ exchangers (NCX) are membrane proteins that play essential roles in the maintenance of the intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis. Not surprisingly, the NCXs are involved in pathologies such as heart diseases. These exchangers are present in several species of mammals (NCX) and insects, for example, in the fly Drosophila melanogaster (CALX). The topology of these proteins consists of a transmembrane and a hydrophilic domain. The transmembrane domain corresponds to two segments of 5 transmembrane helices (TMH) forming a 10-helix bundle that is responsible for the specific transport of Ca2+ and Na+ across the cellular membrane. The hydrophilic domain is composed of a large cytoplasmic loop, which is associated with the regulation of the ion exchange activity of the transmembrane domain. The loop contains two Ca2+-sensors domains, CBD1 and CBD2, and uncharacterized regions. Studies showed that Ca2+ binding to CBD1 inhibits the CALX, whereas it activates the NCX. The juxtamembrane cytosolic regions linking the CBD1 and CBD2 domains to the TMH5 and TMH6, respectively, are highly conserved but have not yet been structurally characterized. The segment near TMH5 is amphipathic, and it is also called exchanger inhibitory peptide (XIP). In the absence of a three-dimensional structure of the complete CALX, the study of TMH5-XIP may contribute to our understanding of the structure and operation of the exchanger. In order to study TMH5-XIP, it was fused to an MBP tag at the N-terminus, and to a sequence of 8 histidines at the C-terminus. Although the expression of the fusion protein was successful, precipitation and inefficient MBP-tag cleavage prevented the isolation of pure TMH5-XIP for structural studies. Hence, a smaller construct, containing only the region equivalent to XIP, was studied by NMR spectroscopy in solution and circular dichroism. The structure assumed by XIP in solution is temperature dependent, being intrinsically disordered at 27 C or a 310-helix at 7 C, respectively. These findings allowed us to infer how XIP could participate in the CALX regulation mechanism

Na⁺/Ca²âº Exchanger 2 (NCX2) in the Circadian Clock of the Rat Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Colocalization with Neuropeptides and Daily Profiles of Gene Expression and Protein Levels.

The plasmalemmal Na⁺/Ca²âº changer (NCX) regulates intracellular Ca²âº by exchanging 3 Na⁺ for 1 Ca²âº in either the Ca²âº exit or Ca²âº entry mode. All three NCX isoforms NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3 are expressed in the rat brain, with isoform-specific differential distribution. In the central clock of suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), intracellular Ca²âº controls the circadian release of major neuropeptides, which are the arginine vasopressin (AVP), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and gastrin releasing peptide (GRP), and the NCX, most likely NCX1, rapidly clears depolarization-induced somatic Ca²âº influx. However, the role of NCX2 in the SCN remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate the colocalization of NCX2 with neuropeptides and daily expression profiles of NCX2 in mRNA and protein levels. Consistent with the restricted distribution of NCX2 in the retinorecipient ventral SCN, the immunostaining results showed colocalization of NCX2 with VIP, GRP and VIP/GRP in the ventral SCN, but not with AVP in the dorsal SCN, or markers for astrocyte and major input pathways. Importantly, the presynaptic marker Bassoon was found to colocalize with NCX2/GRP and NCX2/ VIP, indicating localization of both VIP/NCX2 and GRP/NCX2 at the presynaptic sites. Furthermore, real-time PCR and western blotting revealed no day-night difference in NCX2 mRNA and protein levels, in contrast to a robust circadian rhythm in the expression of clock genes Per1 and Per2. Together the results suggest a role of NCX2 in the regulation of the release of VIP and GRP.

Role of Na+/Ca2+ Exchangers in Therapy Resistance of Medulloblastoma Cells.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Alterations of cytosolic Ca2+-activity ([Ca2+]i) are decisive in the regulation of tumor cell proliferation, migration and survival. Transport processes participating in the regulation of [Ca2+]i include Ca2+ extrusion through K+-independent (NCX) and/or K+-dependent (NCKX) Na+/Ca2+-exchangers. The present study thus explored whether medulloblastoma cells express Na+/Ca2+-exchangers, whether expression differs between therapy sensitive D283 and therapy resistant UW228-3 medulloblastoma cells, and whether Na+/Ca2+-exchangers participate in the regulation of cell survival. METHODS: In therapy sensitive D283 and therapy resistant UW228-3 medulloblastoma cells transcript levels were estimated by RT-PCR, protein abundance by Western blotting, cytosolic Ca2+-activity ([Ca2+]i) from Fura-2-fluorescence, Na+/ Ca2+-exchanger activity from the increase of [Ca2+]i (Δ[Ca2+]i) and from whole cell current (Ica) following abrupt replacement of Na+ containing (130 mM) and Ca2+ free by Na+ free and Ca2+ containing (2 mM) extracellular perfusate as well as cell death from PI -staining and annexin-V binding in flow cytometry. RESULTS: The transcript levels of NCX3, NCKX2, and NCKX5, protein abundance of NCX3, slope and peak of Δ[Ca2+]i as well as Ica were significantly lower in therapy sensitive D283 than in therapy resistant UW228-3 medulloblastoma cells. The Na+/Ca2+-exchanger inhibitor KB-R7943 (10 µM) significantly blunted Δ[Ca2+]i, and augmented the ionizing radiation-induced apoptosis but did not significantly modify clonogenicity of medulloblastoma cells. Apoptosis was further enhanced by NCX3 silencing. CONCLUSIONS: Na+/Ca2+-exchanger activity significantly counteracts apoptosis but does not significantly affect clonogenicity after radiation of medulloblastoma cells.

High levels of synaptosomal Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchangers (NCX1, NCX2, NCX3) co-localized with amyloid-beta in human cerebral cortex affected by Alzheimer's disease.

Synaptosomal expression of NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3, the three variants of the Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX), was investigated in Alzheimer's disease parietal cortex. Flow cytometry and immunoblotting techniques were used to analyze synaptosomes prepared from cryopreserved brain of cognitively normal aged controls and late stage Alzheimer's disease patients. Major findings that emerged from this study are: (1) NCX1 was the most abundant NCX isoform in nerve terminals of cognitively normal patients; (2) NCX2 and NCX3 protein levels were modulated in parietal cortex of late stage Alzheimer's disease: NCX2 positive terminals were increased in the Alzheimer's disease cohort while counts of NCX3 positive terminals were reduced; (3) NCX1, NCX2 and NCX3 isoforms co-localized with amyloid-beta in synaptic terminals and all three variants are up-regulated in nerve terminals containing amyloid-beta. Taken together, these data indicate that NCX isoforms are selectively regulated in pathological terminals, suggesting different roles of each NCX isoform in Alzheimer's disease terminals.

Sodium-calcium exchanger and multiple sodium channel isoforms in intra-epidermal nerve terminals.

BACKGROUND: Nociception requires transduction and impulse electrogenesis in nerve fibers which innervate the body surface, including the skin. However, the molecular substrates for transduction and action potential initiation in nociceptors are incompletely understood. In this study, we examined the expression and distribution of Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) and voltage-gated sodium channel isoforms in intra-epidermal free nerve terminals. RESULTS: Small diameter DRG neurons exhibited robust NCX2, but not NCX1 or NCX3 immunolabeling, and virtually all PGP 9.5-positive intra-epidermal free nerve terminals displayed NCX2 immunoreactivity. Sodium channel NaV1.1 was not detectable in free nerve endings. In contrast, the majority of nerve terminals displayed detectable levels of expression of NaV1.6, NaV1.7, NaV1.8 and NaV1.9. Sodium channel immunoreactivity in the free nerve endings extended from the dermal boundary to the terminal tip. A similar pattern of NCX and sodium channel immunolabeling was observed in DRG neurons in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: NCX2, as well as NaV1.6, NaV1.7, NaV1.8 and NaV1.9, are present in most intra-epidermal free nerve endings. The presence of NCX2, together with multiple sodium channel isoforms, in free nerve endings may have important functional implications.

Modulation of expression of Na+/Ca2+ exchanger in heart of rat and mouse under stress.

AIM: The Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX) is a major Ca(2+) extrusion system in the plasma membrane of cardiomyocytes and an important component participating on the excitation-contraction coupling process in muscle cells. NCX1 isoform is the most abundant in the heart and is known to be changed after development of ischaemia or myocardial infarction. Objective of this study was to investigate the effect of stress factors (immobilization, cold and short-term hypoxia) on the expression of NCX1, in vivo, in the heart of rat and mouse. METHODS: We compared gene expression and protein levels of control and stressed animals. The activity of NCX was measured by the whole cell configuration using the patch clamp. We also measured physiological parameters of the heart in physiological conditions and under ischaemia-reperfusion to compare response of control and stressed hearts. RESULTS: We have found that only strong stress stimulus (hypoxia, immobilization) applied repeatedly for several days elevated the NCX1 mRNA level. Cold, which is a weaker stressor that activates mainly sympathoneural, and only marginally adrenomedullary system did not affect the gene expression of NCX1. Thus, from these results it appears that hormones produced by the adrenal medulla (mainly adrenaline) might be involved in this process. To study possible mechanism of the NCX1 regulation by stress, we focused on the possible role of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical pathway in the activation of catecholamine synthesis in the adrenal medulla. We have already published that cortisol affects activity, but not the gene expression of NCX1. In this work, we used corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) knockout mice, where secretion of corticosterone and subsequently adrenaline is significantly suppressed. As no increase in NCX1 mRNA was observed in CRH knockout mice due to immobilization stress, we proposed that adrenaline (probably regulated via corticosterone) is involved in the regulation of NCX1 gene expression during stress. CONCLUSIONS: The gene expression and protein levels of the NCX1 are increased by the strong stress stimuli, e.g. hypoxia, or immobilization stress. The activity of NCX1 is decreased. Based on these results, we assume that the gene expression of NCX is increased as a consequence of suppressed activity of this transport system.

TRPC3 channels colocalize with Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and Na+ pump in axial component of transverse-axial tubular system of rat ventricle.

Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) proteins form Ca(2+)-permeable, nonselective cation channels activated after stimulation of G protein-coupled membrane receptors linked to phospholipase C (PLC). Although the PLC/inositol phosphate signaling pathway is known to exist in heart, expression and subcellular distribution of TRPC channel proteins in ventricular myocardium have not been evaluated. Of the six members of the TRPC channel family examined here, only TRPC3 was found by Western blot analysis of membrane proteins from rodent or canine ventricle. Likewise, only TRPC3 was observed in immunofluorescence analysis of thin sections from rat ventricle. TRPC3 was also the only family member observed in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes in culture. In longitudinal sections of rat ventricle, TRPC3 was predominantly localized to the intercalated disk region of the myocyte. However, transverse sections through heart muscle or single isolated adult myocytes revealed TRPC3-specific labeling in a vast network of intracellular membranes, where it colocalized with the Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase (NKA) pump and the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX) but not with the ryanodine receptor or the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA) pump. Reciprocal immunoprecipitation assays from rat or canine ventricle showed that TRPC3 associates with NKA and NCX but not with the plasmalemmal Ca(2+)-ATPase pump. Immunoprecipitations from Sf9 insect cells heterologously expressing TRPC3, NKA, and NCX in various combinations revealed that NKA and NCX interact and that TRPC3 and NCX interact, but that TRPC3 does not directly associate with NKA. Together, these results suggest that TRPC3 is localized in the ventricular myocyte to the axial component of the transverse-axial tubular system, where it exists in a signaling complex that includes NCX and NKA.

Functional characterization and molecular cloning of the K+-dependent Na+/Ca2+ exchanger in intact retinal cone photoreceptors.

Light-dependent changes in cytoplasmic free Ca(2+) are much faster in the outer segment of cone than rod photoreceptors in the vertebrate retina. In the limit, this rate is determined by the activity of an electrogenic Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger located in the outer segment plasma membrane. We investigate the functional properties of the exchanger activity in intact, single cone photoreceptors isolated from striped bass retina. Exchanger function is characterized through analysis both of the electrogenic exchanger current and cytoplasmic free Ca(2+) measured with optical probes. The exchanger in cones is K(+) dependent and operates both in forward and reverse modes. In the reverse mode, the K(+) dependence of the exchanger is described by binding to a single site with K(1/2) about 3.6 mM. From the retina of the fish we cloned exchanger molecules bassNCKX1 and bassNCKX2. BassNCKX1 is a single class of molecules, homologous to exchangers previously cloned from mammalian rods. BassNCKX2 exists in four splice variants that differ from each other by small sequence differences in the single, large cytoplasmic loop characteristic of these molecules. We used RT-PCR (reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction) of individual cells to identify the exchanger molecule specifically expressed in bass single and twin cone photoreceptors. Each and every one of the four bassNCKX2 splice variants is expressed in both single and twin cones indistinguishably. BassNCKX1 is not expressed in cones and, by exclusion, it is likely to be an exchanger expressed in rods.

Molecular determinants of altered Ca2+ handling in human chronic atrial fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal Ca2+ handling may contribute to impaired atrial contractility and arrhythmogenesis in human chronic atrial fibrillation (cAF). Here, we assessed the phosphorylation levels of key proteins involved in altered Ca2+ handling and contractility in cAF patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: Total and phosphorylation levels of Ca2+-handling and myofilament proteins were analyzed by Western blotting in right atrial appendages of 49 patients in sinus rhythm and 52 cAF patients. We found a higher total activity of type 1 (PP1) and type 2A phosphatases in cAF, which was associated with inhomogeneous changes of protein phosphorylation in the cellular compartments, ie, lower protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylation of myosin binding protein-C (Ser-282 site) at the thick myofilaments but preserved PKA phosphorylation of troponin I at the thin myofilaments and enhanced PKA (Ser-16 site) and Ca2+-calmodulin protein kinase (Thr-17 site) phosphorylation of phospholamban. PP1 activity at sarcoplasmic reticulum is controlled by inhibitor-1 (I-1), which blocks PP1 in its PKA-phosphorylated form only. In cAF, the ratio of Thr-35-phosphorylated to total I-1 was 10-fold higher, which suggests that the enhanced phosphorylation of phospholamban may result from a stronger PP1 inhibition by PKA-hyperphosphorylated (activated) I-1. CONCLUSIONS: Altered Ca2+ handling in cAF is associated with impaired phosphorylation of myosin binding protein-C, which may contribute to the contractile dysfunction after cardioversion. The hyperphosphorylation of phospholamban probably results from enhanced inhibition of sarcoplasmic PP1 by hyperphosphorylated I-1 and may reinforce the leakiness of ryanodine channels in cAF. Restoration of sarcoplasmic reticulum-associated PP1 function may represent a new therapeutic option for treatment of atrial fibrillation.

The influence of sodium-calcium exchange inhibitors on rabbit lens ion balance and transparency.

Calcium regulation is essential to the maintenance of lens transparency. To maintain cytoplasmic calcium concentration at the required low level the lens must export calcium continuously. Here, studies were conducted to test whether sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) inhibitors disturb calcium balance in the rabbit lens. Intact lenses were incubated up to 48 h in the presence or absence of the NCX inhibitor bepridil. Lens sodium, potassium and calcium content were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Fluo-4 was used to measure epithelial cell cytoplasmic calcium concentration in an intact lens preparation. NCX1 protein expression in lens epithelium was examined by western blot. NCX1 band density was similar in central and equatorial epithelium samples. Lenses exposed to bepridil (30 microM) lost transparency at the anterior and exhibited significant changes in electrolyte and water content. After 48 h, lens calcium content more than doubled, sodium increased four fold and potassium was significantly reduced. In contrast, lenses exposed to inhibitors of reverse mode calcium transport by NCX (KBR7943 or SN-6) remained transparent and the electrolyte and water content of the lens remained unchanged. The ability of bepridil to cause significant changes in lens transparency and electrolyte content points to an important role for NCX-meditated calcium export in the lens.

Comparison of contraction and calcium handling between right and left ventricular myocytes from adult mouse heart: a role for repolarization waveform.

In the mammalian heart, the right ventricle (RV) has a distinct structural and electrophysiological profile compared to the left ventricle (LV). However, the possibility that myocytes from the RV and LV have different contractile properties has not been established. In this study, sarcomere shortening, [Ca2+]i transients and Ca2+ and K+ currents in unloaded myocytes isolated from the RV, LV epicardium (LVepi) and LV endocardium (LVendo) of adult mice were evaluated. Maximum sarcomere shortening elicited by field stimulation was graded in the order: LVendo > LVepi > RV. Systolic [Ca2+]i was higher in LVendo myocytes than in RV myocytes. Voltage-clamp experiments in which action potential (AP) waveforms from RV and LVendo were used as the command signal, demonstrated that total Ca2+ influx and myocyte shortening were larger in response to the LVendo AP, independent of myocyte subtypes. Evaluation of possible regional differences in myocyte Ca2+ handling was based on: (i) the current-voltage relation of the Ca2+ current; (ii) sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ uptake; and (iii) mRNA expression of important components of the Ca2+ handling system. None of these were significantly different between RV and LVendo. In contrast, the Ca2+-independent K+ current, which modulates AP repolarization, was significantly different between RV, LVepi and LVendo. These results suggest that these differences in K+ currents can alter AP duration and modulate the [Ca2+]i transient and corresponding contraction. In summary, these findings provide an initial description of regional differences in excitation-contraction coupling in the adult mouse heart [corrected]

Molecular correlates of repolarization alternans in cardiac myocytes.

Arrhythmogenic action potential alternans (APD-ALT) is thought to arise from beat to beat alteration in cellular Ca(2+) cycling. Previously, we found that spatial heterogeneity in APD-ALT between ventricular myocytes is key to the mechanism linking APD-ALT to cardiac arrhythmogenesis. However, the cellular and molecular basis for APD-ALT is poorly understood. To test the hypothesis that spatial heterogeneities in expression and function of calcium cycling proteins underlies heterogeneities in APD-ALT, endocardial and epicardial myocytes were isolated from left ventricular free wall of 20 guinea pig hearts. APD-ALT and Ca(2+) transient alternans (Ca-ALT) were measured simultaneously as stimulus rate was increased progressively. Endocardial myocytes exhibited greater susceptibility to cellular alternans than epicardial myocytes as evidenced by a significantly lower pacing rate threshold for APD-ALT (113 +/ -9 bpm vs. 151 +/- 8 bpm, respectively, P < 0.05) and for Ca-ALT (110 +/- 8 bpm vs. 149 +/- 8 bpm, respectively, P < 0.05). APD-ALT never occurred without Ca-ALT, whereas Ca-ALT was readily induced in the absence of APD-ALT by repetitive constant action potential waveform, suggesting that Ca-ALT was not secondary to APD-ALT. Importantly, there were significant voltage-independent differences in Ca(2+) cycling between endocardial and epicardial myocytes as evidenced by weaker Ca(2+) release (32% lower Ca(2+) amplitude, and 16% longer rise time), and slower Ca(2+) reuptake (24% larger Ca(2+) decay time constant, and 9% longer Ca(2+) transient duration) in endocardial compared to epicardial myocytes. Taken together these data indicate that myocytes that are most susceptible to APD-ALT exhibit impaired Ca(2+) release and reuptake. Moreover, transmural differences in Ca(2+) cycling function was associated with significantly reduced endocardial expression of ryanodine release channel (by 22%) and SERCA2 (by 40%), suggesting a potential molecular basis for spatially heterogeneous APD-ALT. Moreover, transmural differences in expression and function of key SR Ca(2+) cycling proteins may underlie spatial heterogeneity of APD-ALT that has been closely linked to cardiac arrhythmogenesis.

Transmural heterogeneity of Na+-Ca2+ exchange: evidence for differential expression in normal and failing hearts.

Spatial electrical heterogeneity has a profound effect on normal cardiac electrophysiology and genesis of cardiac arrhythmias in diseased hearts. The Na+-Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) is a key linker, through Ca2+ signaling, between contractility and arrhythmias. Here we characterize the differential transmural expression of NCX in normal and rapid pacing-induced failing canine hearts. Significant transmural heterogeneity of NCX was present in normal hearts, as NCX current density measured at +80 mV was significantly (P<0.05) greater in epicardial (EPI) (5.49 pA/pF) than mid-myocardial (MID) (2.84 pA/pF) and endocardial (ENDO) (2.21 pA/pF) cells. Interestingly, heart failure caused a selective increase in NCX current density (P<0.05) limited to ENDO (by 202%) and MID (by 76%) but not EPI myocytes (P=not significant). The differences in functional expression were associated with changes in both mRNA and protein levels. The normal EPI layer exhibited the greatest NCX mRNA and protein levels compared with MID and ENDO layers, whereas the ENDO layer underwent the most pronounced increase in mRNA (by 185%) and protein (by 207%) levels in heart failure. The transmural NCX gradient, from EPI (greatest) to ENDO (least), is disrupted in heart failure. A selective upregulation of NCX expression in MID and ENDO in heart failure markedly redirects the orientation of the transmural functional gradient of NCX and may lead to enhanced vulnerability to cardiac arrhythmias.

Improved myocardial beta-adrenergic responsiveness and signaling with exercise training in hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac responses to beta-adrenergic receptor stimulation are depressed with pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy. We investigated whether exercise training could modify beta-adrenergic receptor responsiveness in a model of spontaneous hypertension by modifying the beta-adrenergic receptor desensitizing kinase GRK2 and the abundance and phosphorylation of some key Ca2+ cycling proteins. METHODS AND RESULTS: Female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR; age, 4 months) were placed into a treadmill running (SHR-TRD; 20 m/min, 1 h/d, 5 d/wk, 12 weeks) or sedentary group (SHR-SED). Age-matched Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats were controls. Mean blood pressure was higher in SHR versus WKY (P<0.01) and unaltered with exercise. Left ventricular (LV) diastolic anterior and posterior wall thicknesses were greater in SHR than WKY (P<0.001) and augmented with training (P<0.01). Langendorff LV performance was examined during isoproterenol (ISO) infusions (1x10(-10) to 1x10(-7) mol/L) and pacing stress (8.5 Hz). The peak LV developed pressure/ISO dose response was shifted rightward 100-fold in SHR relative to WKY. The peak ISO LV developed pressure response was similar between WKY and SHR-SED and increased in SHR-TRD (P<0.05). SHR-TRD showed the greatest lusitropic response to ISO (P<0.05) and offset the pacing-induced increase in LV end-diastolic pressure and the time constant of isovolumic relaxation (tau) observed in WKY and SHR-SED. Improved cardiac responses to ISO in SHR-TRD were associated with normalized myocardial levels of GRK2 (P<0.05). SHR displayed increased L-type Ca2+ channel and sodium calcium exchanger abundance compared with WKY (P<0.001). Training increased ryanodine receptor phosphorylation and phospholamban phosphorylation at both the Ser16 and Thr17 residues (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Exercise training in hypertension improves the inotropic and lusitropic responsiveness to beta-adrenergic receptor stimulation despite augmenting LV wall thickness. A lower GRK2 abundance and an increased phosphorylation of key Ca2+ cycling proteins may be responsible for the above putative effects.

Reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ uptake and increased Na+-Ca2+ exchanger expression in left ventricle myocardium of dogs with progression of heart failure.

Alteration of intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis in failing cardiomyocytes is associated with changes in regulatory proteins located in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and sarcolemma, which participate in Ca(2+) fluxes across the membrane during the cardiac cycle. These regulatory proteins include Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA 2A), phospholamban (PLB), ryanodine-sensitive Ca(2+) release channels (RR), and the sarcolemmal Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX). Although their status is known in failed myocardium, it is poorly understood during the progression of heart failure (HF), particularly in large animals. We studied the left ventricular (LV) myocardium of six dogs with moderate HF and six with severe HF produced by multiple intracoronary microembolizations, compared with six normal dogs (NL). Oxalate-dependent SR Ca(2+) uptake and expression of SERCA 2A, PLB, phosphorylated PLB at serine 16 (PLB-Ser) and threonine 17 (PLB-Thr), RR, and NCX were determined. Percent LV ejection fraction declined by 47% compared with NL (34.1% +/- 1% vs 64% +/- 2%) in dogs with moderate HF (HF-2W) 2 weeks after the last embolization and by 42% (20.5% +/- 1% vs 34.1% +/- 1%) in dogs with severe HF (HF-4M) at 4 months compared with HF-2W. Left ventricular pressure during isovolumic contraction (+dP/dt, mmHg/s) and relaxation (-dP/dt, mmHg/s) was significantly reduced in severe compared with moderate HF. Oxalate-dependent SR Ca(2+) uptake (nmol (45)Ca(2+) accumulated/min per milligram noncollagen protein) declined by 25% (21.3 +/- 1 vs 28.5 +/- 2) in HF-2W and 49% in HF-4M. Protein expression of SERCA 2A and PLB decreased by 67% and 35%, respectively, in HF-2W compared with NL, whereas SERCA 2A expression increased by 167% and PLB decreased by 40% in HF-4M compared with HF-2W. However, SERCA 2A protein was still significantly lower in HF-4M compared with NL. PLB-Ser and PLB-Thr increased significantly in HF-2W but decreased in HF-4M compared with NL. Similar changes in mRNA encoding PLB and SERCA 2A were observed in dogs with moderate and severe HF. The RR protein level declined in dogs with moderate and severe HF, whereas NCX protein did not change with moderate HF but increased with sever HF. These results suggest that the regulatory proteins responsible for Ca(2+) uptake, Ca(2+) release, and Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchange are critically associated with the deterioration of LV function during the progression of HF.

Comparison of ion channel distribution and expression in cardiomyocytes of canine pulmonary veins versus left atrium.

BACKGROUND: Cardiomyocytes in pulmonary vein (PV) sleeves are important in atrial fibrillation (AF), but underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Pulmonary veins have different ionic current properties compared to left atrium, with pulmonary vein inward-rectifier currents being smaller and delayed-rectifier currents larger than in left atrium. METHODS: Expression and distribution of the inward-rectifier subunits Kir2.1 and Kir2.3, the rapid delayed-rectifier alpha-subunit ERG, the slow delayed-rectifier alpha-subunit KvLQT1, the beta-subunit minK, the L-type Ca(2+)-subunit Ca(v)1.2, and the Na(+),Ca(2+)-exchanger were quantified by Western blot on isolated cardiomyocytes and localized by immunohistochemistry in tissue sections obtained from canine hearts. RESULTS: Western blotting indicated significantly greater expression of ERG (by 28%, P<0.05) and KvLQT1 (by 34%, P<0.05) in pulmonary vein versus left atrial (LA) cardiomyocytes, but smaller Kir2.3 and similar Kir2.1, Ca(v)1.2 and Na(+),Ca(2+)-exchanger expression in PV. Kir2.1 exhibited weak transverse tubular distribution in both regions. Kir2.3 localized to intercalated disks in both regions, and to transverse tubules in left atrium but not pulmonary vein. ERG staining was more intense in pulmonary vein than left atrium, localizing to transverse tubules in both regions and intercalated disks in pulmonary veins. KvLQT1 was more intensely expressed in pulmonary veins, with a transverse tubular and intercalated disk localization, versus a more diffuse signal in left atrium. The Na(+),Ca(2+)-exchanger localized to transverse tubules, plasma membranes and intercalated disks with similar intensity in each region. CONCLUSIONS: Greater ERG and KvLQT1 abundance in pulmonary vein cardiomyocytes, lower abundance of Kir2.3 in pulmonary veins and differential pulmonary vein subcellular distribution of Kir2.3, ERG and KvLQT1 subunits may contribute to ionic current differences between pulmonary vein and left atrial cardiomyocytes.

The alpha 1 isoform of Na,K-ATPase regulates cardiac contractility and functionally interacts and co-localizes with the Na/Ca exchanger in heart.

The primary objective of this study was to examine the functional role of the Na,K-ATPase alpha 1 isoform in the regulation of cardiac contractility. Previous studies using knock-out mice showed that the hearts of animals lacking one copy of the alpha 1 or alpha 2 isoform gene exhibit opposite phenotypes. Hearts from alpha 2(+/-) animals are hypercontractile, whereas those of the alpha 1(+/-) animals are hypocontractile. The cardiac phenotype of the alpha 1(+/-) animals was unexpected as other studies suggest that inhibition of either isoform increases contraction. To help resolve this difference, we have used genetically engineered knock-in mice expressing a ouabain-sensitive alpha 1 isoform and a ouabain-resistant alpha 2 isoform of the Na,K-ATPase, and we analyzed cardiac contractility following selective inhibition of the alpha1 isoform by ouabain. Administration of ouabain to these animals and to isolated heart preparations selectively inhibits only the activity of the alpha 1 isoform without affecting the activity of the alpha 2 isoform. Low concentrations of ouabain resulted in positive cardiac inotropy in both isolated hearts and intact animals expressing the modified alpha 1 and alpha 2 isoforms. Pretreatment with 10 microm KB-R7943, which inhibits the reverse mode of the Na/Ca exchanger, abolished the cardiotonic effects of ouabain in isolated wild type and knock-in hearts. Immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated co-localization of the alpha1 isoform and the Na/Ca exchanger in cardiac sarcolemma. The alpha 1 isoform co-immunoprecipitated with the Na/Ca exchanger and vice versa. These results demonstrate that the alpha 1 isoform regulates cardiac contractility, and that both the alpha 1 and alpha 2 isoforms are functionally and physically coupled with the Na/Ca exchanger in heart.

Lithium-calcium exchange is mediated by a distinct potassium-independent sodium-calcium exchanger.

Sodium-calcium exchangers have long been considered inert with respect to monovalent cations such as lithium, choline, and N-methyl-d-glucamine. A key question that has remained unsolved is how despite this, Li(+) catalyzes calcium exchange in mammalian tissues. Here we report that a Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, NCLX cloned from human cells (known as FLJ22233), is distinct from both known forms of the exchanger, NCX and NCKX in structure and kinetics. Surprisingly, NCLX catalyzes active Li(+)/Ca(2+) exchange, thereby explaining the exchange of these ions in mammalian tissues. The NCLX protein, detected as both 70- and 55-KDa polypeptides, is highly expressed in rat pancreas, skeletal muscle, and stomach. We demonstrate, moreover, that NCLX is a K(+)-independent exchanger that catalyzes Ca(2+) flux at a rate comparable with NCX1 but without promoting Na(+)/Ba(2+) exchange. The activity of NCLX is strongly inhibited by zinc, although it does not transport this cation. NCLX activity is only partially inhibited by the NCX inhibitor, KB-R7943. Our results provide a cogent explanation for a fundamental question. How can Li(+) promote Ca(2+) exchange whereas the known exchangers are inert to Li(+) ions? Identification of this novel member of the Na(+)/Ca(2+) superfamily, with distinct characteristics, including the ability to transport Li(+), may provide an explanation for this phenomenon.

Distribution of K+-dependent Na+/Ca2+ exchangers in the rat supraoptic magnocellular neuron is polarized to axon terminals.

Neurons are polarized into compartments such as the soma, dendrites, and axon terminals, each of which has highly specialized functions. To test whether Ca2+ is differently handled in different compartments of a neuron, we investigated Ca2+ clearance mechanisms in somata of supraoptic magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MNCs) and in their axon terminals located in neurohypophyses. Using patch-clamp and microfluorometry techniques, Ca2+ transients were evoked by depolarizing pulses. Endogenous Ca2+ binding ratios (kappaS) and Ca2+ clearance rates were calculated from the decay phases of Ca2+ transients according to the single compartment model. Mean values of kappaS were 79 +/- 2.6 in somata of MNCs and 187 +/- 19 in axon terminals. Ca2+ clearance rate in axon terminals, which were calculated from time derivative of Ca2+ decay and the kappaS values, were approximately threefold higher than in somata. In response to external Na+ reduction, Ca2+ clearance rates were reduced by 65% in axon terminals, but did not change in somata. Immunohistochemical assays confirmed that K+-dependent Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCKX2) was specifically localized to neurohypophysial axon terminals and was not found in somata. In somata, inhibition of sarcoendoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) pumps, mitochondrial Ca2+-uniporter, and plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase (PMCA) pumps decreased Ca2+ clearance rate by 48, 27, and 21%, respectively. These results suggest that neurohypophysial axon terminals have greater Ca2+ clearance power than somata because of the specific localization of NCKX2, and that Ca2+ clearance in somata of MNCs is mediated by SERCA pumps, mitochondrial uniporter, and PMCA pumps.