Development and Validation of Liquid Chromatographic Method for Fast Determination of Lincomycin, Polymyxin and Vancomycin in Preservation Solution for Transplants.

In this study, a liquid chromatographic method was developed for the fast determination of lincomycin, polymyxin and vancomycin in a preservation solution for transplants. A Kinetex EVO C18 (150 × 4.6 mm, 2.6 µm) column was utilized at 45 °C. Gradient elution was applied using a mixture of mobile phases A and B, both including 30 mM phosphate buffer at pH 2.0 and acetonitrile, at a ratio of 95:5 (v/v) for A and 50:50 (v/v) for B. A flow rate of 1.0 mL/min, an injection volume of 20 µL and UV detection at 210 nm were used. A degradation study treating the three antibiotics with 0.5 M hydrochloric acid, 0.5 M sodium hydroxide and 3% H2O2 indicated that the developed method was selective toward lincomycin, polymyxin, vancomycin and their degradation products. Other ingredients of the preservation solution, like those from the cell culture medium, did not interfere. The method was validated with good sensitivity, linearity, precision and accuracy. Furthermore, lincomycin, polymyxin and vancomycin were found to be stable in this preservation solution for 4 weeks when stored at -20 °C.

Determination of vancomycin and meropenem in serum and synovial fluid of patients with prosthetic joint infections using UPLC-MS/MS.

Numerous studies have suggested that intra-articular administration of antibiotics following primary revision surgery may be one of the methods for treating prosthetic joint infection (PJI). Vancomycin and meropenem are the two most commonly used antibiotics for local application. Determining the concentrations of vancomycin and meropenem in the serum and synovial fluid of patients with PJI plays a significant role in further optimizing local medication schemes and effectively eradicating biofilm infections. This study aimed to establish a rapid, sensitive, and accurate ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for determining the concentrations of vancomycin and meropenem in human serum and synovial fluid. Serum samples were processed using acetonitrile precipitation of proteins and dichloromethane extraction, while synovial fluid samples were diluted before analysis. Chromatographic separation was achieved in 6 min on a Waters Acquity UPLC BEH C18 column, with the mobile phase consisting of 0.1% formic acid in water (solvent A) and acetonitrile (solvent B). Quantification was carried out using a Waters XEVO TQD triple quadrupole mass spectrometer with an electrospray ionization (ESI) source in positive ion mode. The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was employed to detect the following quantifier ion transitions: 717.95-99.97 (norvancomycin), 725.90-100.04 (vancomycin), 384.16-67.99 (meropenem). The method validation conformed to the guidelines of the FDA and the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. The method demonstrated good linearity within the range of 0.5-50 µg/ml for serum and 0.5-100 µg/ml for synovial fluid. Selectivity, intra-day and inter-day precision and accuracy, extraction recovery, matrix effect, and stability validation results all met the required standards. This method has been successfully applied in the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) studies of patients with PJI.

Polymeric membrane potentiometric sensors based on template-removal-free imprinted receptors for determination of antibiotics.

Currently, Nernstian-response-based polymeric membrane potentiometric sensors using molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as receptors have been successfully developed for determination of organic ionic species. However, the preparation of these MIP receptors usually involves tedious and time-consuming template-removal procedures. Herein, a template-removal-free MIP is proposed and used as a receptor for fabrication of a potentiometric sensor. The proposed methodology not only significantly shortens the preparation time of MIP-based potentiometric sensors but also improves the batch-to-batch reproducibility of these sensors. By using antibiotic vancomycin as a model, the new concept offers a linear concentration range of 1.0 × 10-7 to 1.0 × 10-4 mol L-1 with a detection limit of 2.51 × 10-8 mol L-1. It can be expected that the template-removal-free MIP-based sensing strategy could lay the foundation for simple fabrication of electrochemical sensors without the need for template removal such as potentiometric and capacitive sensors and ion-sensitive field-effect transistors.

Development of an on-site therapeutic drug monitoring method using a portable spectrometer.

We report on the development of an on-site therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) method for vancomycin (VCM) utilizing a portable spectrometer and commercially available immunoturbidimetric assay reagents designed for automated clinical chemistry analyzers. The method enables the quantification of VCM in plasma samples within 10 min, with a good correlation between the measured values and the theoretical values (r2 = 0.995). The intra and inter-day precisions were found to be below 12.5% and 17.7%, respectively. Moreover, we established a correlation between the quantitative values using this method and those measured through HPLC-UV and automated clinical chemistry analyzers, showing good reliability (R2 = 0.970 and 0.951, respectively). This method allows anyone to rapidly perform TDM at the bedside and is expected to be used to evaluate appropriate drug therapy.

A New and Ecological Method to Quantify Vancomycin in Pharmaceutical Product by Infrared Spectrometry.

Vancomycin, an antimicrobial, does not present quantitative method by infrared spectrometry in the literature for the evaluation of a pharmaceutical product. This technique is considered a clean alternative because in the main, there is no solvent involved and the generation of waste is reduced. So, the aim of this study was to develop and validate a new, ecological, low cost and fast method by infrared spectrometry using KBr and band between 1450-1375 cm-1. It was linear in the range of 1.0-2.0 mg/150 mg, with a correlation coefficient of 0.9994. Selective when the spectra of vancomycin reference and sample were compared. Precise by repeatability (2.29%) and intermediate precision (3.12%). Accurate with average recovery of 99.37% and robust when strength and compression time of the pellets and KBr brand were varied. Considering all the methods found in literature, there is not one using infrared spectrometry for quantitative purpose, so the method developed and validated could be considered an innovation and clean alternative. This is due to the fact that it is fast, easy to handle, low cost, and non-toxic as well as generating minimal waste. The method can be applied in the routine analysis of vancomycin dosage form and is an important option for the current and sustainable pharmaceutical analysis.

Predictive Performance of Bayesian Vancomycin Monitoring in the Critically Ill.

OBJECTIVES: It is recommended that therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin should be guided by 24-hour area under the curve concentration. This can be done via Bayesian models in dose-optimization software. However, before these models can be incorporated into clinical practice in the critically ill, their predictive performance needs to be evaluated. This study assesses the predictive performance of Bayesian models for vancomycin in the critically ill. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Single-center ICU. PATIENTS: Data were obtained for all patients in the ICU between 1 January, and 31 May 2020, who received IV vancomycin. The predictive performance of three Bayesian models were evaluated based on their availability in commercially available software. Predictive performance was assessed via bias and precision. Bias was measured as the mean difference between observed and predicted vancomycin concentrations. Precision was measured as the sd of bias, root mean square error, and 95% limits of agreement based on Bland-Altman plots. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A total of 466 concentrations from 188 patients were used to evaluate the three models. All models showed low bias (-1.7 to 1.8 mg/L), which was lower with a posteriori estimate (-0.7 to 1.8 mg/L). However, all three models showed low precision in terms of sd (4.7-8.8 mg/L) and root mean square error (4.8-8.9 mg/L). The models underpredicted at higher observed vancomycin concentrations (bias 0.7-3.2 mg/L for < 20 mg/L; -5.1 to -2.3 for ≥ 20 mg/L) and the Bland-Altman plots showed a great deviation between observed and predicted concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Bayesian models of vancomycin show not only low bias, but also low precision in the critically ill. Thus, Bayesian-guided dosing of vancomycin in this population should be used cautiously.

Preparation and evaluation of vancomycin spray-dried powders for pulmonary delivery.

The aim of the current study was to achieve a dry powder formulation of vancomycin by spray drying whilst evaluating the effect of pH and excipient type and percentage used in formulation on particle characteristics and aerosolization performance. A D-optimal design was applied to optimize the formulation comprising vancomycin and two main excipient groups; a carbohydrate bulking agent (lactose, mannitol or trehalose) and a second excipient (hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrin or L-leucine) at pH 4 and 7. The physicochemical properties of particles (size, morphology, crystallinity state, residual moisture content), stability, and aerosolization characteristics were investigated. Using the combination of two excipients increased the fine particle fraction of powder emitted from an Aerolizer® device at a flow rate of 60 L/min. Hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrin showed more potential than L-leucine in aerosolization capabilities. Stability studies over 3 months of storage in 40 °C and 75% relative humidity suggested a good physical stability of the optimized formulation containing 17.39% hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrin along with 29.61% trehalose relative to the amount of drug at pH 4. Use of two excipients including trehalose and hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrin with a total weight ratio of 47% relative to the amount of drug is appropriate for the preparation of vancomycin dry powder formulation for inhalation.

An optimized method for the detection and spatial distribution of aminoglycoside and vancomycin antibiotics in tissue sections by mass spectrometry imaging.

Suboptimal antibiotic dosing has been identified as one of the key drivers in the development of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria that have become a global health concern. Aminoglycosides and vancomycin are broad-spectrum antibiotics used to treat critically ill patients infected by a variety of MDR bacterial species. Resistance to these antibiotics is becoming more prevalent. In order to design proper antibiotic regimens that maximize efficacy and minimize the development of resistance, it is pivotal to obtain the in situ pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic profiles at the sites of infection. Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is the ideal technique to achieve this. Aminoglycosides, due to their structure, suffer from poor ionization efficiency. Additionally, ion suppression effects by endogenous molecules greatly inhibit the detection of aminoglycosides and vancomycin at therapeutic levels. In the current study, an optimized method was developed that enabled the detection of these antibiotics by MSI. Tissue spotting experiments demonstrated a 5-, 15-, 35-, and 54-fold increase in detection sensitivity in the washed samples for kanamycin, amikacin, streptomycin, and vancomycin, respectively. Tissue mimetic models were utilized to optimize the washing time and matrix additive concentration. These studies determined the improved limit of detection was 40 to 5 µg/g of tissue for vancomycin and streptomycin, and 40 to 10 µg/g of tissue for kanamycin and amikacin. The optimized protocol was applied to lung sections from mice dosed with therapeutic levels of kanamycin and vancomycin. The washing protocol enabled the first drug distribution investigations of aminoglycosides and vancomycin by MSI, paving the way for site-of-disease antibiotic penetration studies.

Fluorescent probes for investigating peptidoglycan biosynthesis in mycobacteria.

Tuberculosis killed 1.5 million people in 2018. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis, is the most deadly infectious bacteria in the world. A strength of mycobacterial pathogens - their formidable cell wall - could also be one of their greatest molecular vulnerabilities. As in other bacteria, peptidoglycan (PG) maintenance and integrity is essential to mycobacterial survival. But Mtb PG is unique, and a better understanding of its biosynthetic machinery could lead to new drugs or more effective treatment regimens. Such investigations are being accelerated by the application of fluorescent probes, including those based on vancomycin, ß-lactams, PG stem mimics, d-amino acids, and reactive glycans. This review will describe how fluorescent probes are being used to uncover new information on the regulation and drug susceptibility of two classes of enzymes that fortify the Mtb PG: the penicillin-binding proteins and the L,D-transpeptidases.

Analytical validation of a quantitative method for therapeutic drug monitoring on the Alinity®c Abbott.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the analytical performance of the Alinity®c Abbott compared to the Architect® immunoassay system for the determination of drugs having a narrow therapeutic index. METHODS: Valproic acid, amikacin, gentamicin, phenobarbital and vancomycin were analyzed using Particle-Enhanced Turbidimetric Inhibitor Immunoassay (Petinia), phenytoin and theophylline were analyzed using an immunoenzymatic method and a colorimetric method was performed to quantify lithium. The methods were validated according to the total error approach. Seven validation standards were analyzed in quintuplet during four days to establish the limits of the methods. Dilution integrity and interferences (hemolysis and high concentrations of bilirubin and lipids) were also tested. Depending on the analyte, the results obtained for twenty to forty patients on the Alinity® were compared to those obtained on the Architect®. RESULTS: The bias and the coefficients of variation for repeatability and for intermediate precision were lower than 15% for all drugs. Accuracy profiles were acceptable (acceptance limits fixed at 30%) in the validated ranges. The lower limits of quantification (LLOQ) were similar to those determined by Abbott except for gentamicin for which we determined a LLOQ at 1.22 mg/L while Abbott determined it at 0.5 mg/L. All assays diluted linear and analyte concentrations were not affected by interferences. Concentrations obtained for real samples on the Alinity®c are comparable to those obtained on the Architect®ci. CONCLUSIONS: The analytical validation of a method suitable for therapeutic drug monitoring of drugs on the Alinity®c meets the requirements of European Medicines Agency.

A poly(acrylic acid)-modified copper-organic framework for electrochemical determination of vancomycin.

A copper(II) benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate (BTC) metal-organic framework (MOF) was modified with poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and then used in an electrochemical sensor for vancomycin. The MOF, synthesized via a single-pot method, has enhanced solubility and dispersibility in water as compared to HKUST-1 but without compromising its crystallinity and porosity. The MOF was placed on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) where it shows enhanced electrocatalytic properties. This is assumed to be due to the presence of the poly(acrylic acid) that forms a network between various HKUST-1 crystals through dimer formation between the carboxy groups of BTC and PAA. This also led to better dispersion of the MOF and to improved interaction between MOF and vancomycin. The structural, spectral and electrochemical properties of the MOFs and their vancomycin complexes was characterized. The modified GCE is shown to be a viable tool for electrochemical determination (best at a working potential of 784 mV vs. Ag/AgCl) of the antibiotic vancomycin in spiked urine and serum samples. Response is linear in the 1-500 nM vancomycin concentration range, and the detection limit is 1 nM, with a relative standard deviation of ±4.3%. Graphical abstractSchematic representation of a method for determination of vancomycin. Poly(acrylic acid) modified HKUST-1 (P-HKUST-1) forms a complex with vancomycin [Van-P-HKUST-1] which is coated over glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The decrease in peak current is recorded as response to vancomycin via cyclic voltammetry.

Vancomycin and its crystalline degradation products released from bone grafts and different types of bone cement.

Vancomycin is often used in orthopedic surgery as a local prophylaxis of bacterial infection. The aim of this work was to compare the release of vancomycin and its biologically inactive crystalline degradation products (CDP-1) during in vitro experiments from different types of local antibiotic delivery systems (bone grafts and bone cements). The concentrations of vancomycin and its crystalline degradation products were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Each experiment was performed in a phosphate buffer solution over 21 days. Morselized bone grafts, synthetic bone cements Palacos and Copal, and synthetic bone grafts were tested as local carriers of vancomycin. The highest concentration approximately 670 mg/L of vancomycin was released from synthetic bone grafts Actifuse. Even after 21 days, the concentration of vancomycin was still above the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The maximum concentration of vancomycin released in two experiments with human bone grafts exceeded 600 mg/L during the first day and was still above MIC level 21 days later when the experiment was concluded. By comparing the synthetic bone cements Palacos and Copal, Copal had the average maximum concentration of only 32.4 mg/L and Palacos 35.7 mg/L. The concentration of vancomycin fell below the MIC for vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) on the seventh day with Palacos and the ninth day with Copal. This study showed the insufficient concentration of released vancomycin from synthetic bone cements at the end of the experiment. For improvement of local prophylaxis, it would be beneficial to increase the amount of vancomycin in bone cements.

A ratiometric fluorescent probe for sensitive determination of the important glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin.

A novel sensitive and selective probe for the important antibiotic vancomycin (Van) has been synthesized by integrating a coumarin and a fluorescein as dual fluorescence reporters and a Van binding peptide D-Ala-D-Ala. Only weak green fluorescence was initially observed, which was mostly attributed to fluorescence self-quenching induced by fluorophore stacking. Upon the binding of Van with the D-Ala-D-Ala peptide, the fluorescence turned on, probably due the disaggregation of fluorophores. The intensity ratio of the dual emission bands I519/I446 exhibited an excellent linear relationship with the concentration of Van increasing from 0-20 µM in synthetic urine. The lowest detection limit was calculated to be 92.8 nM in urine, which made the probe applicable in clinically relevant concentration ranges. The synthetic probe has also shown the potential for Van detection in human serum. More interestingly, this probe has been successfully applied for in vivo imaging of Van in zebrafish. Graphical Abstract.

An integrated microfluidic system for antimicrobial susceptibility testing with antibiotic combination.

Polypharmacy is routinely administered to fight severe infections, though it has led to rampant multi-drug resistance in many bacterial strains. Preferably, antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) would be carried out prior to antibiotic prescription, though it is generally thought to be too complex and labor-intensive. In order to assist clinicians with better antibiotic administration for the effective treatment of bacterial infections, an integrated microfluidic system (IMS) capable of automating AST for 1-2 antibiotics against clinical bacterial pathogens was developed herein. Accurate determination of the minimum and fractional inhibitory concentrations of vancomycin, gentamicin, and linezolid were determined by assaying growth of two clinical methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates via a colorimetric assay on-chip. By applying various antibiotic combinations against a single pathogen in multiple chambers, the IMS could identify the optimal drug combination and the minimum effective dosage by evaluating the fractional inhibitory concentration index. This IMS possessed several advantages over conventional methods, including (1) a 50% reduction in bacterial sample and reagent volume (<50 µL per well), (2) less potential for human error due to its automatic nature, (3) faster liquid manipulation time by integrating the microfluidic components rather than labor-intensive process, and (4) straightforward result interpretation via colorimetric change instead of turbidity degree. Personalized medicine for treatment of bacterial infections may therefore be realized using this IMS.

Stability and Sterility of Extemporaneously Prepared Nonpreserved Cefazolin, Ceftazidime, Vancomycin, Amphotericin B, and Methylprednisolone Eye Drops.

PURPOSE: To determine in-use stability and sterility of fortified cefazolin, ceftazidime, vancomycin, amphotericin B, and methylprednisolone eye drops in a simulated inpatient setting with and without a mobile refrigerated container (MR). METHODS: Each drug was prepared and divided into 4 groups: 1) simulated patient use with the MR group: stored at 4°C and kept in the MR during drug administration, 2) simulated patient use without the MR (NoMR) group: stored at 4°C and no MR, 3) refrigerated control group: stored at 4°C, and 4) room temperature control group: stored at room temperature. Stability and sterility data were evaluated at days 0, 4, 7, 14, 21, and 28. Linear mixed-effects model and survival analysis were performed. RESULTS: Median time to 10% loss of concentration for in-use medications (MR/NoMR groups) was >28/27.9, 22.2/22.2, 19.4/19.4, 10.18/<4, and >28/>28 days for cefazolin, ceftazidime, vancomycin, amphotericin B, and methylprednisolone, respectively. There was no significant difference in the predicted concentration loss per day among all groups for vancomycin and methylprednisolone (all P > 0.05). For the other study medications, all room temperature control groups, the cefazolin NoMR group, and the ceftazidime NoMR group had significantly greater predicted concentration loss per day compared with the refrigerated control groups (all P ≤ 0.02). Culture results were negative for all drugs throughout the study. CONCLUSIONS: The NoMR group showed that the drug significantly degraded rapidly for cefazolin, ceftazidime, and amphotericin B. Implementation of MR could decrease the predicted loss of concentration per day for cefazolin and ceftazidime. In vitro antimicrobial activity and sterility were retained for 28 days.

Real-Time Monitoring of Pharmacokinetics of Antibiotics in Biofilms with Raman-Tagged Hyperspectral Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy.

Antibiotics resistance developed by biofilms has posed a clinical challenge in the effective treatment of bacterial infections. However, the resistance mechanisms have not been well understood due to a lack of suitable tools for dynamic observation of the interplay between antibiotics and biofilm. In this work, with the use of rapid hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering microscopy associated with an aryl-alkyne-based Raman tag synthesized, we investigate dynamic interactions between vancomycin and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) biofilm to gain new insights into the resistance mechanisms of the biofilm. Methods: We utilize spectral focusing hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering microscopy ensued with multivariate curve resolution analysis to spectrally decompose S. aureus biofilm into its major components (i.e., bacteria and extracellular polymeric substances). Concurrently, vancomycin is conjugated with aryl-alkyne Raman tag (Raman peak at 2218 cm-1) for in vivo tracking of its uptake into biofilm without tissue interference. Results: We find that vancomycin penetration is a non-uniform diffusion process with penetration depths limited by the preferential affinity to the cell clusters. Semi-quantitative analysis shows that the majority of vancomycin binds to the bacteria, achieving intracellular concentrations of up to 4- to 10- fold higher than the administered dosage. The diffusion constant of ~3.16 µm2/min based on the diffusion and antibiotic binding equations is obtained that well accounts for the antibiotic penetration into the biofilm. SRS longitudinal monitoring of antibiotic effect on the growth of biofilms shows that the antibiotics can eradicate the upper layer of the biofilm exposed to sufficient dosages, while the lower layer of the biofilm at a sub-inhibitory dose remains viable, eventually re-growing to significant bio-volume. Conclusion: The Raman-tagged hyperspectral SRS microscopy developed is a powerful imaging tool for dynamic monitoring of inhibitory effects of antibiotics on the growing biofilm in vivo, which would facilitate the formulation of new antibiotics for more effective treatments of bacterial infections in near future.

JectOS® versus PMMA vancomycin-loaded cement: The biomechanical and antimicrobial properties.

PURPOSE: Bone cement is commonly used as a void filler for bone defects. Antibiotics can be added to bone cement to increase local drug delivery in eradicating infection. After antibiotic elution, nonbiodegradable material becomes an undesirable agent. The purpose of this study was to evaluate effects of addition of vancomycin on the compressive strength of injectable synthetic bone substitute, JectOS®. JectOS, a partially biodegradable cement that over time dissolves and is replaced by bone, could be potentially used as a biodegradable antibiotic carrier. METHODS: Vancomycin at various concentrations was added to JectOS and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Then, the cement was molded into standardized dimensions for in vitro testing. Cylindrical vancomycin-JectOS samples were subjected to compressive strength. The results obtained were compared to PMMA-vancomycin compressive strength data attained from historical controls. The zone of inhibition was carried out using vancomycin-JectOS and vancomycin-PMMA disk on methicillin-resistant strain culture agar. RESULTS: With the addition of 2.5%, 5%, and 10% vancomycin, the average compressive strengths reduced to 8.01 ± 0.95 MPa (24.6%), 7.52 ± 0.71 MPa (29.2%), and 7.23 ± 1.34 MPa (31.9%). Addition of vancomycin significantly weakened biomechanical properties of JectOS, but there was no significant difference in the compressive strength at increasing concentrations. The average diameters of zone of inhibition for JectOS-vancomycin were 24.7 ± 1.44 (2.5%) mm, 25.9 ± 0.85 mm (5%), and 26.8 ± 1.81 mm (10%), which outperformed PMMA. CONCLUSION: JectOS has poor mechanical performance but superior elution property. JectOS-vancomycin cement is suitable as a void filler delivering high local concentration of vancomycin. We recommended using it for contained bone defects that do not require mechanical strength.

Theoretical Investigation of Design Space for Multi Layer Drug Eluting Bioresorbable Suture Threads.

BACKGROUND: The work presented here is focused on the development of a comprehensive theoretical model for the description of drug release from a double - layer bioresorbable suture thread and the therapeutic efficacy of the active compounds delivered in the surrounding tissue. METHODS: In particular, the system under investigation is composed of a core of slow-degrading polylactic- acid-co-ε-caprolactone (PLCL), where an antibiotic compound (Vancomycin) is loaded, surrounded by a shell of a fast-degrading polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) which contains an anesthetic drug (Lidocaine hydrochloride) for the post-surgical pain relief. RESULTS: This system is of potential interest for the combined effects provided by the different active molecules, but the different release and polymer degradation dynamics, as well as their mutual influence, do not allow an intuitive a priori evaluation of device behavior, which can be rationalized through mathematical modeling. The model takes into account the main involved phenomena (polymer degradation and diffusion of the drugs within the device and the tissue, where they are metabolized) and their synergic effects on the overall system behavior. CONCLUSION: Model results are discussed in order to quantify the impact of the main design parameters on device performances, thanks to the use of phase diagrams (which show drug effect in time and space) whose insights are summarized in order to determine a design space according to the specific needs.

Insufficient harmonization of antibiotics assays - Polish experience with an external quality assessment program in the years 2011-2018.

INTRODUCTION: Treatment with vancomycin and gentamycin requires strict monitoring of its serum concentration for proper dosage optimization. This study aimed to assess the quality and the harmonization of antibiotics assays in Polish laboratories. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 413 results of vancomycin and 148 results of gentamycin assays obtained from Polish laboratories in 30 international external quality assessment (EQA) surveys carried out from March 2011 to May 2018 were analyzed. RESULTS: Interlaboratory robust coefficients of variation (rCVs) in particular surveys comprised between 1.3 and 47.2% for vancomycin, and between 1.8 and 34.2% for gentamycin. The percentage of the results with the difference above acceptable limit ±10% from the target value established for own method group was 25.7% for vancomycin and 25.6% for gentamycin. When the difference was established according to target value for all methods, the percentage of results outside the acceptable limit was 2-fold higher on average (54.8% for vancomycin and 43.2% for gentamycin). The comparison of target values for methods revealed statistically significant differences between analytical systems used (p < .0001). The highest difference was 40% for vancomycin and 12% for gentamycin. CONCLUSIONS: The present analysis revealed high dispersion of the antibiotics assays results in Polish laboratories. Moreover, vancomycin and gentamycin results differed significantly in a way dependent on the analytical system used. There appear to be an urgent need for harmonization of methods used for vancomycin and gentamycin measurement.