Unreliable association between self-reported sense of direction and peripheral vestibular function.

BACKGROUND: Uni- or bilateral peripheralvestibular impairment causes objective spatial orientation deficits, which can be measured using pen-and-paper-tests or sensorimotor tasks (navigation or pointing). For patients' subjective orientation abilities, questionnaires are commonly used (e.g., Santa Barbara sense of direction scale [SBSODS]). However, the relationship between subjective assessment of spatial skills and objective vestibular function has only been scarcely investigated. METHODS: A total of 177 patients (mean age 57.86 ± 17.53 years, 90 females) who presented in our tertiary Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders underwent neuro-otological examinations, including bithermal water calorics, video head impulse test (vHIT), and testing of the subjective visual vertical (SVV), and filled out the SBSODS (German version). Correlation analyses and linear multiple regression model analyses were performed between vestibular test results and self-assessment scores. Additionally, groupwise vestibular function for patients with low, average, and high self-report scores was analyzed. RESULTS: Forty-two patients fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for bilateral vestibulopathy, 93 for chronic unilateral vestibulopathy (68 unilateral caloric hypofunction and 25 isolated horizontal vestibulo-ocular reflex deficits), and 42 patients had normal vestibular test results. SBSODS scores showed clear sex differences with higher subjective skill levels in males (mean score males: 4.94 ± 0.99, females 4.40 ± 0.94; Student's t-test: t-3.78, p < .001***). No stable correlation between objective vestibular function and subjective sense of spatial orientation was found. A multiple linear regression model could not reliably explain the self-reported variance. The three patient groups with low, average, and high self-assessment-scores showed no significant differences of vestibular function. CONCLUSION: Self-reported assessment of spatial orientation does not robustly correlate with objective peripheral vestibular function. Therefore, other methods of measuring spatial skills in real-world and virtual environments are required to disclose orientation deficits due to vestibular hypofunction.

[Subacute ataxia associated with cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy and vestibular areflexia (CANVAS)]. / Ataxia subaguda asociada a ataxia cerebelosa, neuropatía y arreflexia vestibular (CANVAS).

Cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) is a late onset neurodegenerative disorder. Its genetic basis has recently been identified in the gene encoding a subunit of the Replication Factor C (RFC1). We present the case of a 62-year-old woman who experienced a history of a biphasic presentation of imbalance and gait disorders, with rapid onset of symptoms followed by slow and progressive neurological deterioration. The diagnostic process was challenging, and numerous tests were conducted to rule out acquired and genetic causes of ataxia, leading to a diagnosis of late-onset idiopathic cerebellar ataxia. Subsequently, vestibular function tests identified severe bilateral vestibulopathy. This led to considering CANVAS among the diagnoses, which was ultimately confirmed through genetic testing (biallelic expansion of the pentanucleotide AAGGG in the RFC1 gene). This case highlights the importance of this new described genetic disease and its subacute presentation variant, emphasizing the relevance of objective vestibular function tests in idiopathic ataxias to achieve proper diagnosis and eventual genetic counseling for offspring.

El síndrome de ataxia cerebelosa, neuropatía y arreflexia vestibular (CANVAS) es un trastorno neurodegenerativo progresivo que se manifiesta en etapas tardías de la vida. Su base genética ha sido recientemente identificada en el gen que codifica la subunidad 1 del factor C de replicación (RFC1). Presentamos el caso de una mujer de 62 años con una historial de desequilibrio y deterioro de la marcha de presentación bifásica, con un inicio rápido de los síntomas seguido de un deterioro neurológico lento y progresivo. El proceso diagnóstico fue complejo y se realizaron numerosas pruebas para descartar causas adquiridas y genéticas de la ataxia, arribando al diagnóstico de ataxia cerebelosa de inicio tardío idiopática. Ulteriormente, las pruebas de función vestibular identificaron una grave vestibulopatía bilateral. Esto llevó a considerar el CANVAS entre los diagnósticos, que finalmente fue confirmado mediante pruebas genéticas (expansión bialélica del penta-nucleótido AAGGG en el gen RFC1). Este caso subraya la importancia de esta nueva enfermedad genética y su variante de presentación subaguda y enfatiza la relevancia de las pruebas objetivas de función vestibular en las ataxias consideradas idiopáticas para lograr un diagnóstico adecuado y un eventual asesoramiento genético a la descendencia.

[Rehabilitation in bilateral vestibulopathy: trends and perspectives]. / Reabilitatsiya patsientov s dvustoronnei vestibulopatiei: tendentsii i perspektivy razvitiya.

A review of the literature on rehabilitation methods for bilateral vestibulopathy is presented using RSCI, Scopus and PubMed databases. The principles and effectiveness of physical vestibular rehabilitation, vestibular implants, galvanic vestibular stimulation, and biofeedback-based sensory substitution and augmentation systems are described. The advantages and disadvantages of each method and perspectives for their improvement are presented.

[Bilateral vestibulopathy and sensorineural hearing loss in necrobiotic xanthogranuloma, multiple myeloma and amiloidosis]. / Dvustoronnyaya vestibulopatiya i sensonevral'naya tugoukhost' u patsienta s nekroticheskoi ksantogranulemoi, mnozhestvennoi mielomoi i amiloidozom.

This article describes a rare case of necrotic xanthogranuloma in a 46-year-old patient who presented with the development of periorbital xanthelasms, progressive bilateral sensorineural hearing loss and bilateral vestibulopathy, followed by multiple myeloma and amyloidosis. For several years, the patient underwent standard rehabilitation for chronic sensorineural hearing loss and was fitted with a hearing aid. During hospitalisation for exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, monoclonal gammopathy was identified, and later, after careful examination and repeated biopsies, necrotic xanthogranuloma, multiple myeloma and AL-amyloidosis were confirmed. Targeted immunochemotherapy resulted in improvement of hearing and significant recovery of the vestibuloocular reflex bilaterally.

A rare case report of bilateral vestibulopathy due to otosyphilis.

RATIONALE: Bilateral vestibulopathy is an important cause of imbalance. There are multiple etiologies of bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP), but reports of BVP due to otosyphilis are rare. PATIENT CONCERNS: A 39-year-old male was referred to our medical center due to vertigo, persistent dizziness and gait disturbance for 2 months. DIAGNOSES: Bilateral vestibulopathy due to otosyphilis was considered in this case, as confirmed through analyses of vestibular function, laboratory tests, and penicillin treatment. INTERVENTIONS: The patient was was treated with a high dose of penicillin G (24 × 106 IU/d) for 14 days. OUTCOMES: The patient's symptoms had improved greatly following treatment, with dizziness and gait disturbance having completely resolved at 3 months following hospital discharge. LESSONS: Bilateral vestibulopathy should be considered when evaluating patients with acute or subacute persistent dizziness. Clinicians should also be aware of the potential for otosyphilis among patients who report BVP.

Bilateral vestibulopathy as the initial presentation of CANVAS.

Cerebellar ataxia with neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) is a slowly progressing autosomal recessive ataxic disorder linked to an abnormal biallelic intronic (most commonly) AAGGG repeat expansion in the replication factor complex subunit 1 (RFC1). While the clinical diagnosis is relatively straightforward when the three components of the disorder are present, it becomes challenging when only one of the triad (cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy or vestibular areflexia) manifests. Isolated cases of Bilateral Vestibulopathy (BVP) or vestibular areflexia that later developed the other components of CANVAS have not been documented. We report four cases of patients with chronic imbalance and BVP that, after several years, developed cerebellar and neuropathic deficits with positive genetic testing for RFC1. Our report supports the concept that CANVAS should be considered in every patient with BVP of unknown etiology, even without the presence of the other triad components. This is especially important given that about 50% of cases in many BVP series are diagnosed as idiopathic, some of which may be undiagnosed CANVAS.

Cerebellar Ataxia With Neuropathy and Vestibular Areflexia Syndrome Due to Replication Factor C Subunit 1 Gene Repeat Expansion.

ABSTRACT: A 56-year-old man was born to consanguineous parents. He experienced slow-progressing sensory disturbances in the upper extremities. T1-weighted images showed cerebellar atrophy. 123I-IMP SPECT revealed reduced cerebral blood flow in the cerebellum. 123I-FP-CIT SPECT showed low uptake of dopamine transporter in the bilateral tail of the striatum. 123I-MIBG scintigraphy shows a decreased heart-to-mediastinum ratio. Flanking polymerase chain reaction suggested biallelic repeat expansion in intron 2 of RFC1, and subsequent repeat-primed polymerase chain reaction revealed ACAGG repeat expansion. Thus, he was diagnosed as cerebellar ataxia with neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome.

Pseudo-eye-of-the-tiger sign in cerebellar ataxia with neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS).

The well-known eye-of-the-tiger sign features bilateral and symmetrical changes in the globus pallidus, with a central area of high signal and peripheral low signal on T2-weighted MRI. Although formally considered pathognomonic of pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration (PKAN), there are other neurodegenerative or genetic diseases showing similar findings. Cerebellar ataxia with neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) is a late-onset ataxia, that was recently associated with biallelic AAGGG repeat expansion in the RFC1 gene. Although its predominant MRI finding is cerebellar atrophy, there may be other less common associated findings. Our aim is to present two cases of CANVAS with associated (pseudo-)eye-of-the-tiger sign, highlighting the possibility of yet another differential diagnosis for this imaging sign.

Intronic FGF14 GAA repeat expansions are a common cause of ataxia syndromes with neuropathy and bilateral vestibulopathy.

BACKGROUND: Intronic GAA repeat expansions in the fibroblast growth factor 14 gene (FGF14) have recently been identified as a common cause of ataxia with potential phenotypic overlap with RFC1-related cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS). Our objective was to report on the frequency of intronic FGF14 GAA repeat expansions in patients with an unexplained CANVAS-like phenotype. METHODS: We recruited 45 patients negative for biallelic RFC1 repeat expansions with a combination of cerebellar ataxia plus peripheral neuropathy and/or bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP), and genotyped the FGF14 repeat locus. Phenotypic features of GAA-FGF14-positive versus GAA-FGF14-negative patients were compared. RESULTS: Frequency of FGF14 GAA repeat expansions was 38% (17/45) in the entire cohort, 38% (5/13) in the subgroup with cerebellar ataxia plus polyneuropathy, 43% (9/21) in the subgroup with cerebellar ataxia plus BVP and 27% (3/11) in patients with all three features. BVP was observed in 75% (12/16) of GAA-FGF14-positive patients. Polyneuropathy was at most mild and of mixed sensorimotor type in six of eight GAA-FGF14-positive patients. Family history of ataxia (59% vs 15%; p=0.007) was significantly more frequent and permanent cerebellar dysarthria (12% vs 54%; p=0.009) significantly less frequent in GAA-FGF14-positive than in GAA-FGF14-negative patients. Age at onset was inversely correlated to the size of the repeat expansion (Pearson's r, -0.67; R2=0.45; p=0.0031). CONCLUSIONS: GAA-FGF14-related disease is a common cause of cerebellar ataxia with polyneuropathy and/or BVP, and should be included in the differential diagnosis of RFC1 CANVAS and disease spectrum.

Clinical and functional characteristics, possible causes, and impact of chronic cough in patients with cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and bilateral vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS).

Cerebellar ataxia with neuropathy and bilateral vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) is an hereditary autosomal recessive disease. Recent studies propose including chronic cough (CC) as a symptom of CANVAS. For 10 patients with CANVAS as genetically confirmed by biallelic expansion of the AAGG repeat motif (AAGGGexp) in intron 2 of replication factor C subunit 1 (RFC1), our aim was, as a multidisciplinary team, to describe clinical and functional characteristics and possible causes of CC following European Respiratory Society (ERS) recommendations, and to evaluate CC impact on quality of life (QoL) using self-administered questionnaires (Cough Severity Diary, Leicester Cough Questionnaire, Discrete Emotions Questionnaire, and EQ-5D-5L). In all 10 patients, the CC was a dry cough that developed several years prior to the neurological symptoms (mean 14.2 years); 7 patients had symptoms compatible with gastroesophageal reflux (GER), 5 with pathological GER diagnosed by 24-h esophageal pH testing, and 6 patients had impaired esophageal motility diagnosed by high-resolution esophageal manometry, most frequently ineffective peristalsis. Although further studies are required for confirmation, we conclude that CC may be a characteristic prodrome of CANVAS and may be related to GER and esophageal disorders. Furthermore, CC affects patients' QoL, especially in the psychosocial sphere.

Inter-day and intra-day variations in effective intensity of noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation to improve postural stability in bilateral vestibulopathy.

BACKGROUND: The reproducibility of the effective intensity of noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) to improve postural stability is not well known. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate inter-day and intra-day variations in effective intensity in patients with bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP). METHODS: Thirteen BVP patients were measured for center-of-pressure movements in the standing posture at five time points: morning of the first test day, morning and evening of the second test day, and morning and evening of the third test day. The mean velocity, the envelopment area, and the root mean square were measured in the eyes-closed condition for 30 s during nGVS application ranging from 0 to 1000µA. The effective intensity was defined as the intensity at which all the three parameters measured during the stimulation were simultaneously smaller than the values at baseline (0µA). RESULTS: Seven of the 13 patients had a common effective intensity throughout the three test days. Six patients on the second test day and five patients on the third test day had no common effective intensity between morning and evening. CONCLUSIONS: The effective intensity of nGVS changes depending on the time during the day as well as between the days.

Variability in the Results of Vestibular Assessment in Patients with Genetically Confirmed Cerebellar Ataxia, Neuropathy, and Vestibular Areflexia Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) presents an unpredictable and uneven clinical development of cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and vestibular areflexia. The aim of this study is to report the variability of vestibular test results in genetically confirmed patients with cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and vestibular areflexia syndrome. METHODS: Caloric testing, video head impulse test (vHIT), and rotatory chair testing were performed in 7 patients who presented pathogenic repeat expansions in the replication factor complex unit 1 gene related to cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and vestibular areflexia syndrome. RESULTS: Reduced vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) gain was observed in 100% of the patients in rotatory chair testing. Three of them had bilateral areflexia in caloric testing while 2 showed unilateral hypofunction and 2 had no alterations in the test. Only 1 patient had bilateral abnormal vHIT with gains under 0.6 in both ears. CONCLUSION: Genetic testing allows an early diagnosis of cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and vestibular areflexia syndrome, whereby the vestibular system may be affected to different degrees. Rotatory chair testing has a higher sensitivity for the detection of vestibular hypofunction in these patients. Caloric testing can provide additional information. vHIT might underdiagnose patients with mild-to-moderate vestibulopathy.

Optical Genome Mapping Enables Detection and Accurate Sizing of RFC1 Repeat Expansions.

A recessive Short Tandem Repeat expansion in RFC1 has been found to be associated with cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS), and to be a frequent cause of late onset ataxia and sensory neuropathy. The usual procedure for sizing these expansions is based on Southern Blotting (SB), a time-consuming and a relatively imprecise technique. In this paper, we compare SB with Optical Genome Mapping (OGM), a method for detecting Structural Variants (SVs) based on the measurement of distances between fluorescently labelled probes, for the diagnosis of RFC1 CANVAS and disease spectrum. The two methods are applied to 17 CANVAS patients' blood samples and resulting sizes compared, showing a good agreement. Further, long-read sequencing is used for two patients to investigate the agreement of sizes with either SB or OGM. Our study concludes that OGM represents a viable alternative to SB, allowing for a simpler technique, a more precise sizing of the expansion and ability to expand analysis of SV in the entire genome as opposed to SB which is a locus specific method.

Isolated bilateral posterior semicircular canal hypofunction: comparison with bilateral vestibulopathy.

BACKGROUND: Chronic unsteadiness is a common complaint at vestibular clinics. Bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP) is a major cause of chronic unsteadiness but is often overlooked. Although diagnostic criteria for BVP have been established by the Barany Society, isolated vertical canal hypofunction can remain undiagnosed. Recently, the video head-impulse test has enabled clinicians to assess vertical semicircular canal function at clinics. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to compare the features of isolated bilateral posterior semicircular canal hypofunction (IBPH) with those of BVP diagnosed based on the Barany criteria. METHODS: The clinical data of 8 IBPH patients that had been diagnosed using our diagnostic criteria (sex, age, subjective symptoms, questionnaire, video head-impulse test and stabilometry) were analyzed and compared with those of 6 BVP patients diagnosed using the Barany criteria. RESULTS: The IBPH patients were all aged >70 years, while the age range of the BVP patients was wider. While the BVP patients complained of both oscillopsia during body movement and unsteadiness in darkness, the IBPH patients complained of unsteadiness in darkness without oscillopsia during body movement. The IBPH patients exhibited milder clinical findings than the BVP patients. CONCLUSION: IBPH can cause mild unsteadiness in the elderly. SIGNIFICANCE: Clinicians should be aware that IBPH can cause unsteadiness in the elderly.

[THE HIDDEN VESTIBULAR FEATURES OF MACHADO JOSEPH DISEASE (SPINOCEREBELLAR ATAXIA 3)].

INTRODUCTION: Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) is an inherited neurodegenerative disease with progressive cerebellar ataxia manifested through lack of coordination and balance. MJD patients also present significant Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex (VOR) deficit but their whole vestibular features have not been previously evaluated. We aimed to evaluate whether MJD patients have vestibular features fitting the diagnostic criteria of Bilateral Vestibulopathy established by the International Society for Neuro-otology. METHODS: Sixteen MJD patients and 21 healthy controls underwent a detailed clinical neuro-otological examination including a quantitative evaluation of the VOR gain using the video Head Impulse Test (vHIT). Vestibular-related symptoms were evaluated by the Dizziness Handicap Inventory (DHI), the Activities-specific Balance Confidence Scale (ABC), the Vertigo Visual Scale (VVS). In addition, anxiety that is frequently present in vestibular disorders, was evaluated by the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). RESULTS: MJD patients had significantly reduced horizontal VOR gain with significantly higher scores in all vestibular-related symptoms questionnaires. These symptoms scores were like those reported in studies evaluating patients with bilateral peripheral vestibular loss. CONCLUSIONS: Beyond the cerebellar deficits, MJD patients have vestibular signs and symptoms fitting the diagnostic criteria of Bilateral Vestibulopathy established by the International Society for Neuro-otology. These findings are of relevance not only for the diagnosis and evaluation of progressive cerebellar diseases but also for the possible beneficial effect of vestibular rehabilitation techniques on dizziness, balance and the emotional, physiological and functional aspects of MJD.

Frequency and Phenotype of RFC1 Repeat Expansions in Bilateral Vestibulopathy.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP) is a chronic debilitating neurologic disorder with no monogenic cause established so far despite familiar presentations. We hypothesized that replication factor complex subunit 1 (RFC1) repeat expansions might present a recurrent monogenic cause of BVP. METHODS: The study involved RFC1 screening and in-depth neurologic, vestibulo-oculomotor, and disease evolution phenotyping of 168 consecutive patients with idiopathic at least "probable BVP" from a tertiary referral center for balance disorders, with127 of them meeting current diagnostic criteria of BVP (Bárány Society Classification). RESULTS: Biallelic AAGGG repeat expansions in RFC1 were identified in 10/127 patients (8%) with BVP and 1/41 with probable BVP. Heterozygous expansions in 10/127 patients were enriched compared with those in reference populations. RFC1-related BVP manifested at a median age of 60 years (range 34-72 years) and co-occurred predominantly with mild polyneuropathy (10/11). Additional cerebellar involvement (7/11) was subtle and limited to oculomotor signs in early stages, below recognition of classic cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, and vestibular areflexia syndrome. Clear dysarthria, appendicular ataxia, or cerebellar atrophy developed 6-8 years after onset. Dysarthria, absent patellar reflexes, and downbeat nystagmus best discriminated RFC1-positive BVP from RFC1-negative BVP, but neither sensory symptoms nor fine motor problems. Video head impulse gains of patients with RFC1-positive BVP were lower relative to those of patients with RFC1-negative BVP and decreased until 10 years disease duration, indicating a potential progression and outcome marker for RFC1-disease. DISCUSSION: This study identifies RFC1 as the first-and frequent-monogenic cause of BVP. It characterizes RFC1-related BVP as part of the multisystemic evolution of RFC1 spectrum disease, with implications for designing natural history studies and future treatment trials. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study provides Class II evidence that RFC1 repeat expansions cause BVP.

Cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS): diagnostic contribution of vestibular function tests.

Cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) is a recently recognised but underdiagnosed cause of late-onset hereditary ataxia. Symptoms may vary, and differential diagnoses can span several specialties. We report the case of a man in his 60 s who presented with a 10 year history of imbalance and progressive gait disturbance associated with a chronic spasmodic cough that preceded these symptoms by almost 30 years. He had previously undergone extensive testing for acquired and genetic causes of ataxia without a conclusive diagnosis. Brain MRI revealed cerebellar atrophy, and nerve conduction tests suggested a sensory ganglionopathy. Vestibular function testing was crucial for diagnosis, identifying a severe bilateral vestibulopathy. This led to the consideration of CANVAS, which was finally confirmed by genetic testing. This case raises awareness of this novel genetic disease, highlighting the importance of objective vestibular function tests in establishing an early diagnosis.

Assessing balance in people with bilateral vestibulopathy using the Mini-Balance Evaluation Systems Test (Mini-BESTest): feasibility and comparison with healthy control data.

OBJECTIVES: Bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP) leads to unsteadiness when walking, which worsens in darkness or on uneven ground, as well as falls. Since simple balance tests struggle to distinguish between BVP and healthy participants, we aimed (1) to test if the Mini-BESTest is feasible in BVP, (2) how people with BVP perform on the Mini-BESTest and (3) to compare these scores with healthy reference data. METHODS: Fifty participants with BVP completed the Mini-BESTest. 12-month falls incidence was obtained by questionnaire. To compare the overall and sub-scores between our participants with BVP and those of healthy participants from the literature (n = 327; obtained via PubMed searches), Mann-Whitney U tests were used. Sub scores within the BVP group were also compared. Spearman correlations were used to investigate the relationships between Mini-BESTest score and age. RESULTS: No floor or ceiling effects were observed. Participants with BVP had significantly lower Mini-BESTest total scores than the healthy group. Anticipatory, reactive postural control and sensory orientation sub scores of the Mini-BESTest were significantly lower in BVP, while dynamic gait sub scores were not significantly different. A stronger negative correlation between age and Mini-BESTest total score was found in BVP than in the healthy group. Scores did not differ between patients with different falls history. CONCLUSION: The Mini-BESTest is feasible in BVP. Our results confirm the commonly reported balance deficits in BVP. The stronger negative association between age and balance in BVP might reflect the age-related decline in the remaining sensory systems with which people with BVP compensate.

[Bilateral peripheral vestibulopathy]. / Dvustoronnyaya perifericheskaya vestibulopatiya.

Bilateral vestibulopathy is a relatively widespread and at the same time rarely diagnosed cause of chronic postural instability. Numerous toxic factors, dysmetabolic, autoimmune and neurodegenerative processes can lead to this condition. The main clinical manifestations of bilateral vestibulopathy are balance disorders and visual disturbances (oscillopsia), which can significantly increase the risks of falls in such patients. In addition, cognitive and affective disorders, which also reduce the quality of life in patients with bilateral vestibulopathy, have been described and actively studied in recent years. The diagnosis of bilateral vestibulopathy is based on the results of a clinical neurovestibular study, including a dynamic visual acuity test and a Halmagyi test. A video head impulse test, a bithermal caloric test and a sinusoidal rotation test are used as instrumental methods confirming the dysfunction of the peripheral vestibular system. However, they are still not widespread in neurological practice. Treatment of bilateral vestibulopathy is reduced to vestibular rehabilitation. Encouraging results have been obtained in a number of studies using galvanic vestibular stimulation and the use of vestibular implants. In addition, cognitive rehabilitation methods are currently being developed, which presumably can also improve compensation for bilateral vestibular loss.