No safe place: Prevalence and correlates of violence against conflict-affected women and girls in South Sudan.

BACKGROUND: Conflict and humanitarian crises increase the risk of both intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence against women and girls. We measured the prevalence and risk factors of different forms of violence against women and girls in South Sudan, which has suffered decades of conflict, most recently in 2013. METHODS: A population-based survey was conducted among women aged 15-64 in three conflict-affected sites in South Sudan: Juba, Rumbek, and the Protection of Civilian Sites (PoCs) in Juba between 2015 and 2016. FINDINGS: A total of 2,244 women between the ages of 15-64 were interviewed. Fifty percent (in the Juba PoCs) to 65% (in Juba and Rumbek) of all female respondents experienced either physical or sexual violence from a partner or non-partner in the course of their lifetimes. Approximately 35% of respondents have experienced rape, attempted rape or other forms of sexual violence by a non-partner during their lifetime. For ever-partnered women, lifetime prevalence of physical and/or sexual partner violence ranged between 54% in the Juba PoCs and 73% in Rumbek. Restrictive marital practices and gender norms, and experiences of conflict were major drivers of both partner and non-partner violence. CONCLUSION: Women and girls in South Sudan suffer among the highest levels of physical and sexual violence in the world. Although the prevalence of sexual assault by non-partners is four times the global average, women are still at greatest risk of physical and sexual assault from intimate partners. Conflict-related and intimate partner violence reinforce each other and are upheld by restrictive gender norms and marital practices. Expansion of comprehensive services, including health and psycho-social support for survivors is urgently needed. Moreover, policies and laws to prevent violence against women and provide survivors with access to justice should be given high priority within the ongoing peacebuilding process in South Sudan.

Ethnic Violence and Birth Outcomes: Evidence From Exposure to the 1992 Conflict in Kenya.

This study is an examination of the effect of intrauterine exposure to electoral violence on child birth weight, an outcome that has long-term effects on an individual's education, income, and health in later life. We consider the electoral violence that resulted from the introduction of multiparty democracy in Kenya as an exogenous source of shock, using a difference-in-differences method and a mother fixed-effects model. We find that prenatal exposure to the violence increased the probabilities of low birth weight and a child being of very small size at birth by 19 and 6 percentage points, respectively. Violence exposure in the first trimester of pregnancy decreased birth weight by 271 grams and increased the probabilities of low birth weight and very small size at birth by 18 and 4 percentage points, respectively. The results reaffirm the significance of the nine months in utero as one of the most critical periods in life that shapes future health, economic, and educational trajectories.

Police Brutality and Mistrust in Medical Institutions.

BACKGROUND: People bring the social contexts of their lives into the medical encounter. As a social determinant of health, police brutality influences physical and mental health. However, negative experiences with institutions such as law enforcement might decrease trust in other institutions, including medical institutions. Mistrust might limit engagement with the healthcare system and affect population health. This study investigates the relationship between police brutality and medical mistrust and assesses whether it varies by race. BASIC PROCEDURES: Data were obtained from a 2018 cross-sectional survey of adults living in urban areas in the USA (N = 4389). Medical mistrust was regressed on police brutality (experiences and appraisal of negative encounters with the police), controlling for socio-demographics, health status, and healthcare access. Means of mistrust were predicted by racial group after including interactions between police brutality and race. MAIN FINDINGS: Respondents who had negative encounters with the police, even if they perceived these encounters to be necessary, had higher levels of medical mistrust compared to those with no negative police encounters. Police brutality increased mistrust for all racial groups. PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS: Conditions outside the medical system such as experiencing police brutality impact relationships with the medical system. Given that clinicians are in a unique position of having access to firsthand information about the struggles and injustices that shape their patients' health, advocating for systemic change on behalf of their patients might build trust.

Violence against indigenous children and adolescents in Venezuela.

Research on violence in indigenous communities refers to traditional practices of competition for scarce goods and clashes with other populations over their territories. Violence against children is not described, and authors of some studies state a tradition of good treatment towards them. In our study we shows that the situation has changed and new forms of violence are affecting 725,000 inhabitants from 51 indigenous groups of Venezuela, especially those composed of children and adolescents. The method used was interviews with key informants and for secondary census, civil society data and journalists' reports. Results describe the existence of four types of violence: (a) structural violence, derived from the shortage of food and medicines that have caused deaths due to malnutrition and lack of medical attention, prostitution, girl trafficking and forced emigration; (b) violence of organized crime, which exercise control of illegal mining and affect the Yanomami and Pemón peoples, as workforce for the production of coca and drug trafficking with the Yupka people; and contraband of gasoline in the Wayúu people; (c) domestic violence due to cultural changes derived from new patterns of alcohol consumption or the use of physical punishment of children between Piaroa and Yekuana peoples; and (d) the illegal violence of the State for the imposition of mining with the Pemón people or the repression for the protests with the Warao and Inga peoples. In the article we show the great difference between the official discourse of protection of indigenous peoples and the realities of violence, criminal exploitation and violation of rights suffered by indigenous children and adolescents.

Violence against indigenous children and adolescents in Venezuela / Violencia contra niños y adolescentes indígenas en Venezuela / Violência contra crianças e adolescentes indígenas na Venezuela

Abstract: Research on violence in indigenous communities refers to traditional practices of competition for scarce goods and clashes with other populations over their territories. Violence against children is not described, and authors of some studies state a tradition of good treatment towards them. In our study we shows that the situation has changed and new forms of violence are affecting 725,000 inhabitants from 51 indigenous groups of Venezuela, especially those composed of children and adolescents. The method used was interviews with key informants and for secondary census, civil society data and journalists' reports. Results describe the existence of four types of violence: (a) structural violence, derived from the shortage of food and medicines that have caused deaths due to malnutrition and lack of medical attention, prostitution, girl trafficking and forced emigration; (b) violence of organized crime, which exercise control of illegal mining and affect the Yanomami and Pemón peoples, as workforce for the production of coca and drug trafficking with the Yupka people; and contraband of gasoline in the Wayúu people; (c) domestic violence due to cultural changes derived from new patterns of alcohol consumption or the use of physical punishment of children between Piaroa and Yekuana peoples; and (d) the illegal violence of the State for the imposition of mining with the Pemón people or the repression for the protests with the Warao and Inga peoples. In the article we show the great difference between the official discourse of protection of indigenous peoples and the realities of violence, criminal exploitation and violation of rights suffered by indigenous children and adolescents.

Resumen: La investigación sobre la violencia en las comunidades indígenas se refiere a las prácticas tradicionales de competencia por los bienes escasos y enfrentamientos con otras poblaciones por sus territorios. La violencia contra los niños no se ha conocido, y algunos estudios afirman la existencia de una tradición de buen trato hacia ellos. Este estudio muestra que la situación cambió y que nuevas formas de violencia están afectando a 725.000 habitantes de los 51 grupos indígenas de Venezuela, especialmente niños y adolescentes. El método utilizado fue entrevistas con informantes clave, un censo secundario, así como datos de la sociedad civil e informes de periodistas. Los resultados describen la existencia de cuatro tipos de violencia: (a) violencia estructural, derivada de la escasez de comida y medicinas, que ha causado muertes debido a la malnutrición y falta de atención médica; prostitución, tráfico de niñas y emigración forzosa; (b) la violencia del crimen organizado, que ejerce el control de la minería ilegal y afecta a los Yanomami y Pemón, como fuerza de trabajo para la producción de coca y tráfico de drogas en el caso de los Yupka; además de contrabando de gasolina con los Wayúu; (c) la violencia doméstica, debido a los cambios culturales, derivada de nuevos patrones de consumo de alcohol o la aplicación del castigo físico de niños entre los Piaroa y Yekuana; y (d) la violencia ilegal del estado para la imposición de la minería con los Pemón o la represión de las protestas con los Warao e Inga. El artículo expone la gran diferencia entre el discurso oficial de protección a los indígenas y las realidades de violencia, explotación criminal y violación de los derechos sufridos por los niños y adolescentes indígenas.

Resumo: A pesquisa sobre violência em comunidades indígenas se refere a práticas tradicionais de disputa por bens escassos e confrontos com outras populações pela posse de seus territórios. A violência contra crianças ainda não foi descrita, e alguns estudos afirmam uma tradição de bom tratamento em relação a elas. O estudo mostra que a situação já mudou, e que novas formas de violência estão afetando 725.000 habitantes de 51 grupos indígenas na Venezuela, especialmente contra crianças e adolescentes. O método utilizado teve como base entrevistas com informantes-chave e acesso a dados censitários e de fontes da sociedade civil, além de relatos de jornalistas. Os resultados descrevem a existência de quatro tipos violência: (a) violência estrutural, derivada da escassez de alimentos e medicamentos, que provoca mortes devido à desnutrição e à falta de atendimento médico; prostituição e tráfico de meninas, além de emigração forçada; (b) violência praticada pelo crime organizado, com o controle da mineração ilegal e que afeta os povos Yanomami e Pemón, como força de trabalho na produção de coca e no tráfico de drogas no povo Yupka e o contrabando de gasolina no povo Wayúu; (c) violência doméstica em função de mudanças culturais derivadas dos novos padrões de consumo de álcool ou do uso de castigo físico de crianças, entre os povos Piaroa e Yekuana; e (d) violência ilegal praticada pelo estado pela imposição da mineração no povo Pemón ou com a repressão de protestos pelos povos Warao e Inga. O artigo mostra a grande diferença entre o discurso oficial da proteção dos indígenas e a realidade de violência, exploração criminosa e violação dos direitos das crianças e adolescentes indígenas na Venezuela.

Collective action and the evolution of social norm internalization.

Human behavior is strongly affected by culturally transmitted norms and values. Certain norms are internalized (i.e., acting according to a norm becomes an end in itself rather than merely a tool in achieving certain goals or avoiding social sanctions). Humans' capacity to internalize norms likely evolved in our ancestors to simplify solving certain challenges-including social ones. Here we study theoretically the evolutionary origins of the capacity to internalize norms. In our models, individuals can choose to participate in collective actions as well as punish free riders. In making their decisions, individuals attempt to maximize a utility function in which normative values are initially irrelevant but play an increasingly important role if the ability to internalize norms emerges. Using agent-based simulations, we show that norm internalization evolves under a wide range of conditions so that cooperation becomes "instinctive." Norm internalization evolves much more easily and has much larger effects on behavior if groups promote peer punishment of free riders. Promoting only participation in collective actions is not effective. Typically, intermediate levels of norm internalization are most frequent but there are also cases with relatively small frequencies of "oversocialized" individuals willing to make extreme sacrifices for their groups no matter material costs, as well as "undersocialized" individuals completely immune to social norms. Evolving the ability to internalize norms was likely a crucial step on the path to large-scale human cooperation.

[Femicides in ethnic and racialized groups: syntheses]. / Feminicídios em grupos étnicos e racializados: síntese.

The text entitled "Femicides in ethnic and racialized groups: syntheses" presents some of the discussions that took place during a seminar on this topic in Buenaventura. Buenaventura is the main Colombian port on the Pacific, a region rich in minerals and a corridor for the movement of goods, which makes it a strategic territory and a center for disputes. At the seminar, the social and political determinants of femicide were discussed, understanding it as a tactic of waging war against women. The forum provided a space for academic discussion, but also for grievances over inter-personal violence, the manifestation of feelings and the elaboration of pain and grief through the medium of art. We believe that the dissemination of this experience to the Brazilian public, in a country with ethnic, social and racial vulnerability similar to that in Colombia, will be of value to social and health workers. The scope of this paper is therefore to provide the opinion of its authors on the determinants of femicides and on actions to tackle them, in addition to a synthesis of the discussions and debates that permeated the event.

Effect of the Syrian Civil War on Prevalence of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Southeastern Anatolia, Turkey.

BACKGROUND: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a vector-mediated skin disease, characterized by chronic wounds on the skin and caused by macrophages in protozoan parasites. It is an endemic disease in the southern and southeastern Anatolia region and is still an important public health problem in Turkey. Because of the civil war in Syria, immigrants to this region in the last 3 years have begun to more frequently present with this disease. The aim of this study was to draw attention to the dramatic increase in new cases with CL after the beginning of the civil war in Syria. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this retrospective study, we evaluated demographic, epidemiological, and clinical features of 110 patients diagnosed with cutaneous leishmaniasis who were admitted to the Department of Dermatology at Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University Faculty of Medicine between January 2011 and June 2014. RESULTS: A total of 110 patients included in the study; 50 (45%) were males, and 60 (55%) were females. The age range of the study group was 1-78 years, and the infection was more prevalent in the 0-20 year age group. Of these patients, 76 (69%) were Syrian refugees living in tent camps and 34 (31%) were Turkish citizens. The majority of the cases were diagnosed between October and December. CONCLUSIONS: Immigrations to endemic regions of Turkey from neighbouring countries where CL incidence is higher may lead to large increases in case numbers. In order to decrease the risk of exposure, housing conditions of the refugees must be improved, routine health controls must be performed, effective measures must be set in place for vector control, and infected individuals must be diagnosed and treated to prevent spread of the infection.