Structures of two novel crystal forms of Aspergillus oryzae alpha amylase (taka-amylase).

The structures of Aspergillus oryzae α-amylase were determined in a tetragonal crystal, having one molecule as asymmetric unit, and a monoclinic crystal with two molecules as asymmetric unit. Both crystal forms were obtained from trace contaminants of an old commercial lipase preparation. Structures were determined and refined to 1.65 Å and 1.43 Å resolution respectively. The latter crystal has a non-crystallographic (NCS) twofold axis within the asymmetric unit. Glycosylation at Asn197 is evident, and in the tetragonal crystal can be seen to include three, partially disordered sugar residues following the initial N-acetyl glucosamine (NAG). Superposition of the tetragonal crystal model on the α-amylases from Bacillus subtilis (PDB:1BAG), pig pancreas (PDB:3L2L), and barley (PDB:1AMY), show a high degree of coincidence, particularly for the (ß/α)8-barrel domains, and especially within the active site. Using this structural agreement between amylases, we extrapolated the binding model of a six residue, limit dextrin found in pig pancreas α-amylase to the A. oryzae enzyme model, which predicts substrate interacting amino acid residues.

Computer simulations explain the anomalous temperature optimum in a cold-adapted enzyme.

Cold-adapted enzymes from psychrophilic species show the general characteristics of being more heat labile, and having a different balance between enthalpic and entropic contributions to free energy barrier of the catalyzed reaction compared to mesophilic orthologs. Among cold-adapted enzymes, there are also examples that show an enigmatic inactivation at higher temperatures before unfolding of the protein occurs. Here, we analyze these phenomena by extensive computer simulations of the catalytic reactions of psychrophilic and mesophilic α-amylases. The calculations yield temperature dependent reaction rates in good agreement with experiment, and also elicit the anomalous rate optimum for the cold-adapted enzyme, which occurs about 15 °C below the melting point. This result allows us to examine the structural basis of thermal inactivation, which turns out to be caused by breaking of a specific enzyme-substrate interaction. This type of behaviour is also likely to be relevant for other enzymes displaying such anomalous temperature optima.

Effect of porcine pancreatic α-amylase on dexamethasone release from aqueous solution containing natural γ-cyclodextrin.

Dexamethasone release from natural γ-cyclodextrin (γCD) complexes was investigated in presence of porcine pancreatic α-amylase (PPA). The phase-solubility of dexamethasone in aqueous γCD solutions was determined, PPA degradation of γCD was investigated, and permeation studies were performed in simulated tear fluid. The phase-solubility profile was of Bs type and the stability constant (K1:1) of the dexamethasone/γCD complex determined from the initial linear section of the profile was relatively high or 12887 M-1. The high K1:1 value indicates that dexamethasone has high affinity for γCD under the test condition. From the PPA catalyzed γCD degradation studies the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) and Vmax were determined to be 3.24 mM and 9.79 × 10-3 mM/min, respectively. The permeation studies performed at low γCD concentrations, showed that dexamethasone is released from the complex solutions at faster rate when PPA was present than when no PPA was present.

Inhibitory effect of a weight-loss Chinese herbal formula RCM-107 on pancreatic α-amylase activity: Enzymatic and in silico approaches.

Reducing carbohydrates digestion by having a low glycaemic index (GI) foods has been linked to weight loss. Inhibiting related enzymes is an alternative way to decrease carbohydrate digestion. RCM-107 (Slimming Plus), an eight-herb formula that is modified from RCM-104, indicated significant weight-loss action in clinical trials. However, no published research has studied its mechanism of action on reducing carbohydrate absorption via suppressing the activities of porcine pancreatic alpha-amylase (PPA). In this paper, we used fluorescence PPA inhibition assay to investigate the inhibitory effects of RCM-107 and the individual herbs present in this herbal mixture on amylase activity. Subsequently, molecular docking predicted the key active compounds that may be responsible for the enzyme inhibition. According to our results, both the RCM-107 formula and several individual herbs displayed α-amylase inhibitory effects. Also, marginal synergistic effects of RCM-107 were detected. In addition, alisol B, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and plantagoside have been predicted as the key active compounds that may be responsible for the α-amylase inhibition effect of RCM-107 according to inter-residue contact analysis. Finally, Glu233, Gln63, His305, Asp300 and Tyr151 are predicted to be markers of important areas with which potential amylase inhibitors would interact. Therefore, our data has provided new knowledge on the mechanisms of action of the RCM-107 formula and its individual herbal ingredients for weight loss, in terms of decreasing carbohydrate digestion via the inhibition of pancreatic alpha-amylase.

Interaction of Structurally Diverse Phenolic Compounds with Porcine Pancreatic α-Amylase.

A blood glucose level lowering effect is postulated for polyphenols (PPs), which is in part attributed to the inhibition of α-amylase. To estimate structure-effect relationships, chlorogenic acid (CA), phlorizin (PHL), epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epicatechin (EC), and malvidin-3-glucoside (Mlv-3-glc) were used as inhibitors in an enzyme assay, on the basis of the conversion of GalG2CNP by α-amylase. The detection of CNP was performed by UV/vis spectroscopy. The data reveal that the inhibitor strength decreases as follows: EGCG > Mlv-3-glc > EC > PHL ∼ CA. Detection of the substrate conversion by isothermal titration calorimetry supports these results. All PPs showed mixed inhibition, except for CA and EGCG wherein the competitive proportion was predominant. Investigations by saturation transfer difference NMR revealed interaction of PPs with α-amylase prevalently based on interactions with the aromatic or conjugated system. A correlation between the extent of the conjugated system and the IC50 of the PP could be found.

A single-enzyme system for starch digestibility screening and its relevance to understanding and predicting the glycaemic index of food products.

There is currently great interest in increasing provisions of healthier carbohydrate foods, particularly those that possess a low Glycaemic Index (GI) when measured in vivo. The metabolic response to many starch-rich foods is driven largely by differences in the rate and extent of starch amylolysis. Enzyme-kinetic parameters obtained from high-throughput in vitro amylolysis assays therefore have potential for rapid prediction of GI for starch-rich foods. The aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of a starch digestibility screening method and resulting enzyme-kinetic parameters in comparing and predicting the GI of a range of carbohydrate-rich foods. Starch-rich foods (n = 20) with GI ranging from 36 to 81 were digested by porcine pancreatic α-amylase for 90 min under a fixed enzyme-substrate ratio (4 U/10 mg starch) at 37 °C on a rotary mixer. Starch digestion progress was determined by quantification of reducing sugar concentration in aliquots collected throughout the incubation. Indices of starch digestibility (C20, C60, C90, HI, C∞, and k) were obtained and compared with GI values. Digestibility curves revealed differences in the starch amylolysis for the broad range of foods tested. In vitro starch digestibility indices were significantly correlated (p < 0.01) with GI, with the exception of the rate constant, k. Out of all the indices tested, C90 and C∞ were the most strongly correlated with in vivo rankings for GI of matched food products (Tb = 0.596, p < 0.001 and Tb = 0.599, p < 0.01, respectively), however the digestibility plots obtained for some of the more slowly digested foods were linear over 90 min meaning that C∞ and k could not be obtained from first order kinetic analysis. C90 was most strongly correlated with the absolute GI values (r = 0.724, p < 0.001). Overall starch digestibility profiles reflected differences in starch amylolysis for food with varying GI, and C90 provided the best indication of absolute and relative GI values across all product categories. The in vitro starch digestibility screening method shows potential for rapid prediction of GI values and is recommended for early stage food product development and for mechanistic studies.

Folding Then Binding vs Folding Through Binding in Macrocyclic Peptide Inhibitors of Human Pancreatic α-Amylase.

De novo macrocyclic peptides, derived using selection technologies such as phage and mRNA display, present unique and unexpected solutions to challenging biological problems. This is due in part to their unusual folds, which are able to present side chains in ways not available to canonical structures such as α-helices and ß-sheets. Despite much recent interest in these molecules, their folding and binding behavior remains poorly characterized. In this work, we present cocrystallization, docking, and solution NMR structures of three de novo macrocyclic peptides that all bind as competitive inhibitors with single-digit nanomolar Ki to the active site of human pancreatic α-amylase. We show that a short stably folded motif in one of these is nucleated by internal hydrophobic interactions in an otherwise dynamic conformation in solution. Comparison of the solution structures with a target-bound structure from docking indicates that stabilization of the bound conformation is provided through interactions with the target protein after binding. These three structures also reveal a surprising functional convergence to present a motif of a single arginine sandwiched between two aromatic residues in the interactions of the peptide with the key catalytic residues of the enzyme, despite little to no other structural homology. Our results suggest that intramolecular hydrophobic interactions are important for priming binding of small macrocyclic peptides to their target and that high rigidity is not necessary for high affinity.

Water-soluble vitamins for controlling starch digestion: Conformational scrambling and inhibition mechanism of human pancreatic α-amylase by ascorbic acid and folic acid.

The inhibition of human pancreatic α-amylase (HPA) enzyme activity can offer facile routes to ameliorate postprandial hyperglycemia in diabetes via control of starch digestion. The present study utilizes complementary experimental (starch digestion kinetics, fluorescence quenching, Förster resonance energy transfer and X-ray diffraction) and computational (molecular docking and dynamics simulation) methods to evaluate the HPA inhibitory activity of eight water-soluble vitamins, for the first time. In particular, ascorbic acid inhibited HPA activity via non-competitive antagonism from two allosteric sites, by channeling the inhibition towards the active site cavity via the triose-phosphate isomerase (TIM) barrel. In contrast, folic acid inhibited HPA activity by binding competitively to the active site cavity and decreasing the disorder in the neighboring loops 3 and 7, which are important mobile loops in HPA for starch digestion. The infusion of such biocompatible and nutritional water-soluble vitamins alongside starch may offer new avenues for diabetes management.

Effects of palm oil on structural and in vitro digestion properties of cooked rice starches.

The glycemic potency of rice depends upon the rate and extent of starch hydrolysis by pancreatic amylase and intestinal alpha-glucosidases. However, complexation of starch molecules with lipids is known to reduce the enzymic hydrolysis. In this study, we elucidated the varietal effect of rice starches on the formation of amylose-lipid complex, after cooking with palm oil, a common cooking oil. The amount of complexed lipid followed the order of black (2.5%), brown (2.5%), white (1.5%) and waxy (0.5%) rice starches. After heating with palm oil, the relative crystallinity of all the rice starches were destroyed whilst a V-type peak at 20° 2θ was increased, indicating the formation of amylose-lipid complex. This is also suggested from the DSC data where the melting enthalpy increased significantly after cooking in palm oil for all rice samples. The formation of amylose-lipid complex reduced the in vitro starch digestibility, enhancing the resistance starch content whilst decreasing the rapid and slow digestion fractions of non-waxy varieties. The rate and extent of in vitro starch hydrolysis seems to be dependent on the presence or absence of amylose fraction. With the mechanistic details, the present study suggests the applicability of palm oil addition during the rice cooking to enhance its nutritional functionality.

In vitro inhibition of pancreatic α-amylase by spherical and polygonal starch nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles are novel and fascinating materials for tuning the activities of enzymes. In this study, we investigated the influence of spherical and polygonal starch nanoparticles (SNPs) on α-amylase activity and revealed the reaction mechanisms by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, fluorescence spectroscopy, and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. We discovered that both spherical and polygonal SNPs could inhibit the α-amylase activity, with half-inhibitory concentration values of 0.304 and 0.019 mg mL-1, respectively. Furthermore, spherical and polygonal SNPs followed competitive and mixed competitive inhibition mechanisms, respectively. The fluorescence data indicated that static quenching was dominant in the interaction between SNPs and α-amylase. The CD results demonstrated that the inhibition of α-amylase by SNPs was accompanied by the decreased intensity of the CD spectra of α-amylase. Our findings provide a novel strategy to inhibit α-amylase to reduce the digestion of starch, thus managing blood glucose levels.

Molecular Weight Affected Antioxidant, Hypoglycemic and Hypotensive Activities of Cold Water Extract from Pleurotus citrinopileatus.

Cold water extract of P. citrinopileatus (CWEPC) was fractioned into 4 fractions, PC-I (<1 kDa), PC-II (1-3.5 kDa), PC-III (3.5-10 kDa), and PC-IV (>10 kDa), by ultrafiltration. The antioxidant activities, the inhibition of pancreatic α-amylase, intestinal α-glucosidase, and hypertension-linked angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), as well as the contents of polysaccharides, protein, and phenolic compounds of 4 fractions were determined. The results showed that lower MW fractions exerted a higher antioxidant activity, which was correlated to phenolic contents. The high molecular fraction (PC-IV) exhibited significantly higher inhibitory activity on α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and ACE compared to CWEPC and the other 3 lower MW fractions (<10 kDa), which was more related to protein contents. The inhibition capability of CWEPC and PC-IV on α-amylase activity was 1/13.4 to 1/2.7 relative to that of acarbose, respectively. Kinetic data revealed that PC-IV fraction followed a noncompetitive inhibition pattern on α-glucosidase activity. The study demonstrated that various MW fractions and types of components contribute to different biological functions of P. citrinopileatus and it is protein constituents but not peptides responsible for the hypoglycemic potential of CWEPC.

Evaluation of pancreatin stability through enzyme activity determination.

Pancreatin is a biotechnological product containing an enzyme complex, obtained from porcine pancreas, that is employed in treating pancreatic diseases. Experiments regarding the stability of the pharmaceutical formulation containing pancreatin were performed using standard binary mixtures with 6 excipients in a 1:1 ratio (m/m) and a commercial formulation. To accomplish these goals, samples were stored for 1, 3 and 6 months at 40 ± 1 °C and 75 ± 5 % relative humidity (RH) and 40 ± 1 °C and 0 % RH. Stress testing was also performed. All samples were analyzed to evaluate the α-amylase, lipase and protease activities through UV/Vis spectrophotometry. The results revealed that the excipient proprieties and the storage conditions affected enzyme stability. Humidity was a strong influencing factor in the reduction of α-amylase and protease activities. Stress testing indicated that pH 9.0 and UV light did not induce substantial alterations in enzyme activity.

Inhibition of Porcine Pancreatic Amylase Activity by Sulfamethoxazole: Structural and Functional Aspect.

Combating Type-2 diabetes mellitus is a pivotal challenge in front of the present world. Several lines of therapy are in practice for resisting this deadly disease which often culminates with cardiovascular complexities, neuropathy and retinopathy. Among various therapies, administration of alpha glucosidase inhibitors is common and widely practiced. Sulfonylurea category of anti diabetic drug often suffers from cross reactivity with sulfamethoxazole (SMX), a common drug in use to treat a handful of microbial infections. However the specific cellular target generating postprandial hypoglycemia on SMX administration is till date unraveled. The present work has been initiated to elucidate the effects of a group of sulfonamide drugs inclusive of SMX for their amylase inhibitory role. SMX inhibits porcine pancreatic amylase (PPA) in a noncompetitive mode with an average IC50 value 0.94 mM respectively. Interaction of SMX with PPA is manifested with gradual quenching of tryptophan fluorescence with concomitant shift in lambda max value (λmax). Binding is governed by entropy driven factor (24.8 cal mol(-1) K(-1)) with unfavorable contribution from enthalpy change. SMX interferes with the activity of acarbose in a synergistic mode to reduce the effective dose of acarbose as evident from the in vitro PPA inhibition study. In summary, loss of PPA activity in presence of SMX is indicative of structural changes of PPA which is further augmented in the presence of acarbose as explained in the schematic model and docking study.

Glucosyl epi-cyclophellitol allows mechanism-based inactivation and structural analysis of human pancreatic α-amylase.

As part of a search for selective, mechanism-based covalent inhibitors of human pancreatic α-amylase we describe the chemoenzymatic synthesis of the disaccharide analog α-glucosyl epi-cyclophellitol, demonstrate its stoichiometric reaction with human pancreatic α-amylase and evaluate the time dependence of its inhibition. X-ray crystallographic analysis of the covalent derivative so formed confirms its reaction at the active site with formation of a covalent bond to the catalytic nucleophile D197. The structure illuminates the interactions with the active site and confirms OH4' on the nonreducing end sugar as a good site for attachment of fluorescent tags in generating probes for localization and quantitation of amylase in vivo.

Establishing the catalytic mechanism of human pancreatic α-amylase with QM/MM methods.

In this work, we studied the catalytic mechanism of human pancreatic α-amylase (HPA). Our goal was to determine the catalytic mechanism of HPA with atomic detail using computational methods. We demonstrated that the HPA catalytic mechanism consists of two steps, the first of which (glycosylation step) involves breaking the glycosidic bond to culminate in the formation of a covalent intermediate. The second (deglycosylation step) consists of the addition of a water molecule to release the enzyme/substrate covalent intermediate, completing the hydrolysis of the sugar. The active site was very open to the solvent. Our mechanism basically differs from the previously proposed mechanism by having two water molecules instead of only one near the active site that participate in the mechanism. We also demonstrate the relevant role of the three catalytic amino acids, two aspartate residues and a glutamate (D197, E233, and D300), during catalysis. It was also shown that the rate limiting step was glycosylation, and its activation energy was in agreement with experimental values obtained for HPA. The experimental activation energy was 14.4 kcal mol(-1), and the activation energy obtained computationally was 15.1 kcal mol(-1).

Susceptibility to corrosion of laser welding composite arch wire in artificial saliva of salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase.

In this study, laser-welded composite arch wire (CAW) with a copper interlayer was exposed to artificial saliva containing salivary amylase or pancreatic amylase, and the resultant corrosion behavior was studied. The purpose was to determine the mechanisms by which salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase contribute to corrosion. The effects of amylase on the electrochemical resistance of CAW were tested by potentiodynamic polarization measurements. The dissolved corrosion products were determined by ICP-OES, and the surfaces were analyzed by SEM, AFM and EDS. The results showed that both exposure to salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase significantly improved the corrosion resistance of CAW. Even isozyme could have different influences on the alloy surface. When performing in vitro research of materials to be used in oral cavity, the effect of α-amylase should be taken into account since a simple saline solution does not entirely simulate the physiological situation.

Interaction mechanism between green tea extract and human α-amylase for reducing starch digestion.

This study evaluated the inhibitory effects of the green tea extract on human pancreatic α-amylase activity and its molecular mechanism. The green tea extract was composed of epicatechin (59.2%), epigallocatechin gallate (14.6%) and epicatechin gallate (26.2%) as determined by HPLC analysis. Enzyme activity measurement showed that % inhibition and IC50 of the green tea extract (10%, based on starch) were 63.5% and 2.07 mg/ml, respectively. The Michaelis-Menten constant remained unchanged but the maximal velocity decreased from 0.43 (control) to 0.07 mg/(ml × min) (4 mg/ml of the green tea extract), indicating that the green tea extract was an effective inhibitor against α-amylase with a non-competitive mode. The fluorescence data revealed that the green tea extract bound with α-amylase to form a new complex with static quenching mechanism. Docking study showed the epicatechin gallate in the green tea extract presented stronger affinity than epigallocatechin gallate, with more number of amino acid residues involved in amylase binding with hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces. Thus, the green tea extract could be used to manipulate starch digestion for potential health benefits.

The mechanism study in the interactions of sorghum procyanidins trimer with porcine pancreatic α-amylase.

To examine the mechanisms in the interaction of sorghum procyanidins trimer (SPT) with porcine pancreatic α-amylase (PPA), fluorescence quenching, circular dichroism, and UV spectra methods were adopted. The procyanidins binding mode, binding constant and effect of procyanidins on protein stability and conformation were determined. The fluorescence spectroscopy results showed that the Stern-Volmer quenching constant K(SV) of SPT on PPA, bimolecular quenching constant k(q), and apparent static quenching constant K were 2639.5 M(-1), 2.6395 × 10(11) M(-1) s(-1), and 495.19 M(-1), respectively. In addition, binding constant KA and number of binding sites were 872.971 M(-1) and 1, respectively. Circular dichroism study revealed that PPA conformation was altered by SPT with a major reduction of ß-sheet, increase of ß-turn, minor change of random coil. UV spectra indicated that SPT influenced the micro-environment of aromatic amino acid residues in PPA. These findings directly elucidate the mechanisms of high molecular weight SPT in interaction with PPA.

α-Amylase inhibitory triterpene from Abrus precatorius leaves.

In the screening experiments for porcine pancreatic α-amylase inhibitors in 18 plants obtained from Indonesia, a potent inhibitory activity was detected in the extract of leaves of Abrus precatorius. The enzyme assay-guided fractionation of the extract led to the isolation of a triterpene ketone, lupenone (1), as a potent α-amylase inhibitor, together with 24-methylenecycloartenone (2) and luteolin (3). The mode of inhibition of compound 1 against porcine pancreatic α-amylase was a mixed inhibition. This is the first report that describes the potent α-amylase inhibitory activity of the low-polar triterpene ketone similar to compound 1. A comparison of the activities of the isolate and related compounds indicated the importance of C-3 ketone and the lupane skeleton in the α-amylase inhibitory activity.

Order and disorder: differential structural impacts of myricetin and ethyl caffeate on human amylase, an antidiabetic target.

The increasing prevalence of diabetes has accelerated the search for new drugs derived from natural sources. To define the functional features of two such families of compounds, the flavonols and the ethyl caffeates, we have determined the high-resolution structures of representative inhibitors in complex with human pancreatic α-amylase. Myricetin binds at the active site and interacts directly with the catalytic residues despite its bulky planar nature. Notably, it reduces the normal conformational flexibility of the adjacent substrate binding cleft. In contrast, bound ethyl caffeate acts by disordering precisely those polypeptide chain segments that make up the active site binding cleft. It also operates from binding sites far removed from the active site, a property not observed in any other class of human α-amylase inhibitor studied to date. Given the current inadequacy of drugs directed at diabetes, the use of optimized flavonols and ethyl caffeates may present an alternative therapeutic route.