Behavioral, productive, and reproductive aspects of the water buffalo in Mexico

Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) production in Mexico has generated particular interest in understanding the bases of the development of this species. As a result, alliances have emerged between scientific, governmental, industrial, and productive sectors and other organisms involved with this species nationally and internationally. We must recognize that thanks to specific anatomical characteristics, water buffaloes present a low incidence of complications during calving, though they are not exempt from obstetric and perinatological problems that can end in morbidity and mortality for mother and/or offspring, with losses for both branches of dual-purpose production systems: calves-milk and meat, and draft animals. This article analyzes scientific advances related to water buffalo production in Mexico, including productivity, thermoregulation, behavior, and physiology, and key subthemes like obstetric and perinatological handling, imprinting, milking, and dual-purpose production systems. It highlights features inherent to milk production and the neurophysiological and metabolic processes involved in obtaining meat and milk. Finally, it presents a brief overview of current legislation and summarizes key areas of opportunity.(AU)

Assessment of thermal response, cardiorespiratory parameters and post-operative analgesia in dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy with different combinations of epidural analgesia and isoflurane

This study aimed to evaluate the thermal response of the eyelids and lacrimal gland of the left eye (LETG) through infrared thermography (IRT), cardiorespiratory parameters, and their association with nociception and pain in bitches undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy (OVH) anesthetized with isoflurane and epidural analgesia. Twenty-one healthy bitches of different breeds were randomized into three groups receiving epidural blocks: GL (n=7), lidocaine (2 mg Kg-1 ); GLF (n=7), lidocaine (2 mg Kg-1 ) and fentanyl (3 µg Kg-1 ); and GLM (n=7), lidocaine (2 mg Kg-1 ) with morphine (0.1 mg Kg-1 ). IRT and cardiorespiratory parameters were evaluated at baseline (Ebasal), thirty minutes before anesthetic premedication, and at different surgical events: first incision (EInc), ligature and section of the left (ELoV), and right (ERoV) ovarian pedicle, ligature, and re-section of the cervix (EUt), and skin suture (ESut). The assessment of acute pain in the immediate post-operative period was registered at E1h, E2h, and E3h using IRT, the Dynamic Interactive Visual Analogic Scale (DIVAS), and the University of Melbourne Pain Scale (UMPS) scales. The results showed a statistically significant decrease in the lower eyelid surface temperature (LELT) during EInc for GL (32.9°C ± 0.62), in comparison to GLF (34.2°C ± 0.62) and GLM (35.3°C ± 0.62) (P = 0.006). Regarding LETG, a significant increase (P = 0.03) in the IRT of Ebasal (36.8°C ± 0.63) and EInc (36.1°C ± 0.63) for GLM was observed in comparison to the thermographic values for both perioperative events and groups. The GLM showed a significant decrease in IRT values of ERoV at E3h in the upper and lower eyelids (P = 0.03 and P = 0.01, respectively). A progressive and significant reduction of the IRT values of LETG was also recorded in GLM, with differences in ERoV (35.2 °C ± 0.63) (P = 0.02) and E3h (35.3 °C ± 0.63) (P = 0.01). The cardiovascular parameters (SAP, DAP, and MAP) did not differ between treatments, but in GL, there was a significant difference (P = 0.01) during EInc and ESut, compared to Ebasal. In the body temperature, EInc and ESut gradually decreased in all treatment groups (P = 0.01). In conclusion, hemodynamic and cardiorespiratory stability was associated with IRT readings and the absence of nociception. Changes in superficial temperature in the immediate post-operative period were lessened using isoflurane and epidural analgesia of lidocaine alone or in combination with pure opioids. These findings were clinically validated to the DIVAS and UMPS acute pain assessment scales.

Veganism and animal welfare, scientific, ethical, and philosophical arguments

The justification for this review article is to understand the position of vegans and those individuals who consume food of animal origin from an unbiased perspective but with a grounding in scientific evidence. This will provide people who eat meat with scientific and ethical arguments to defend their alimentary autonomy in the context of the moral conflict that has emerged in societies regarding the consumption of meat and animal products, which is criticized ­sometimes even attacked­ by activists, ovolactovegetarians, or vegetarians with alimentary habits that stress ethical and moral respect for animals. These individuals refuse to eat meat and animal products but sometimes show disrespect for those who do. In recent decades, veganism and vegetarianism have reached an apogee in some western societies where they are often considered a healthy option for humans that simultaneously fosters animal and environmental welfare. While those diets may provide numerous benefits, they can also entail health risks by failing to provide balance and necessary dietary supplements. Various researchers concur that they are not appropriate for pregnant women, children, or carnivorous or omnivorous pets. Our review of scientific articles in favor and against dietary regimens that lack protein of animal origin leads to the conclusion that these dietary changes, on their own, do not reduce animal suffering or the contamination generated by the meat, dairy, and poultry industries. Finally, it is important to consider that, despite the popular opinion that vegetarianism and veganism are healthy diet alternatives, the diet must be individualized and well-balanced according to each stage of their life cycle.

Critical aspects of legislation and their impact on the welfare of water buffaloes during transport

Transport is considered a stressful period for livestock that can cause economic and biological losses if inadequate handling procedures exist. Several manuals and guides include recommendations for common domestic species based on scientific evidence. Still, the legislative freedom of each country means that they are not mandatory worldwide, nor do they cover all species, such as the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). This review aims to analyze the legal strictures currently applicable to the transport of this species. Critical aspects of the legislation that address the pre-transport, transportation, and post-transport stages are discussed, focusing on Asian and Latin American countries and the European Union. Areas of opportunity to improve the norms and laws that impact public policies, civil aspects, and water buffalo welfare in production systems are elucidated.

Anatomical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms of thermoregulation in elephants

Elephants use different thermoregulatory mechanisms that depend on the anatomical and morphological characteristics of the species. The crevices and wrinkles of the skin enhance the water-retention capacity of the epidermis. The highly vascularized ear is another region of particular interest, as its movement and vasomotor changes promote heat dissipation. Generally, these mechanisms are modulated by the hypothalamic thermoregulatory center and by the peripheral response of animals. Nonetheless, elephants are currently exposed to alterations in their habitats, such as global warming and climatic changes, which challenge their homeothermy. This article aims to discuss the thermoregulation mechanisms of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants from an anatomical, physiological, and behavioral basis. The practical implications of these elements will be analyzed to implement tools, such as infrared thermography, or environmental enrichment, as strategies to promote the thermal balance of elephants.

Effects of transport on water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis): factors associated with the frequency of skin injuries and meat quality

It is well known that transporting livestock is stressful for the animals and a primary cause of skin lesions. The effects of transport on the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) have not been studied extensively despite reports of high incidences of trauma during and after these mobilizations. The present review article analyzes the frequency of skin injuries suffered by water buffaloes during transport and several key contributing factors. It also discusses the consequences of injuries on the quality of carcasses. Important aspects identified include inappropriate vehicle design that does not comply with the dimensions recommended by international institutions (e.g., height, type of flooring, characteristics of the ramp), handling methods, and the ability of stock people to manage water buffaloes, all of which impact the incidence of injuries. Our analysis of these elements will contribute to identifying critical control points and areas of opportunity while also suggesting strategies to ensure the welfare of these animals during transport and the quality of water buffalo products and by-products.

Circus Animal Welfare: analysis through a fivedomain approach

This study aims to review the current available literature regarding circus animals from the perspective of the five domains proposed for evaluating animal welfare to identify the critical points in the use of these animals and understand how circus spectacles affect their mental state and health. Exhibiting animals in circuses continues to be a popular practice today in some countries such as Germany, Spain, or Australia. However, animals' biological needs are not always prioritized due to the inadequate diets, reduced housing spaces, deficient social interaction, and handling that predisposes them to develop stereotypies and alter mental states due to chronic stress. Animal circuses are considered a controversial practice that can decrease the welfare of animals. Understanding the possible negative consequences on animal welfare (mental state and physical health) could contribute to planning strategies to improve the quality of life of wildlife animals exhibited in circuses worldwide.

Conservation, animal behaviour, and human-animal relationship in zoos. Why is animal welfare so important?

Although zoos are committed to wildlife conservation and have a long-term positive impact on visitors' attitudes towards wildlife, the question of whether maintaining wild animals in human care is justified remains as animal welfare concerns grow and human understanding of animal intelligence and capacities broadens. Zoos have always been the subject of debate, with conflicts between those who argue they save endangered species and educate visitors, and animal rights activists who believe that conditions of wild animals are inadequate and that zoos should not exist. In this review, we do not discuss the moral side of the issue, but the scientific one. This manuscript aims to show the scope of literature available on the strengths and weaknesses of modern zoos regarding wild animal welfare. We provide information useful to argue why zoos are important in modern society and factors that influence welfare are examined. Some potentially stressful stimuli may diminish animal welfare in zoo animals, while some of the benefits zoos offer to conservation and science include the opportunity to study and learn about different aspects necessary to improve management practices; the possibility of breeding wild animals in zoos has been a key factor in the recovery of species that have improved their conservation status. Animal welfare is an essential part of wildlife conservation, so efforts should be directed to ensure the best possible quality of life and optimum conditions of all zoo animals in our care.(AU)

Conservation, animal behaviour, and human-animal relationship in zoos. Why is animal welfare so important?

Although zoos are committed to wildlife conservation and have a long-term positive impact on visitors' attitudes towards wildlife, the question of whether maintaining wild animals in human care is justified remains as animal welfare concerns grow and human understanding of animal intelligence and capacities broadens. Zoos have always been the subject of debate, with conflicts between those who argue they save endangered species and educate visitors, and animal rights activists who believe that conditions of wild animals are inadequate and that zoos should not exist. In this review, we do not discuss the moral side of the issue, but the scientific one. This manuscript aims to show the scope of literature available on the strengths and weaknesses of modern zoos regarding wild animal welfare. We provide information useful to argue why zoos are important in modern society and factors that influence welfare are examined. Some potentially stressful stimuli may diminish animal welfare in zoo animals, while some of the benefits zoos offer to conservation and science include the opportunity to study and learn about different aspects necessary to improve management practices; the possibility of breeding wild animals in zoos has been a key factor in the recovery of species that have improved their conservation status. Animal welfare is an essential part of wildlife conservation, so efforts should be directed to ensure the best possible quality of life and optimum conditions of all zoo animals in our care.(AU)

Conservation, animal behaviour, and human-animal relationship in zoos. Why is animal welfare so important?

Although zoos are committed to wildlife conservation and have a long-term positive impact on visitors' attitudes towards wildlife, the question of whether maintaining wild animals in human care is justified remains as animal welfare concerns grow and human understanding of animal intelligence and capacities broadens. Zoos have always been the subject of debate, with conflicts between those who argue they save endangered species and educate visitors, and animal rights activists who believe that conditions of wild animals are inadequate and that zoos should not exist. In this review, we do not discuss the moral side of the issue, but the scientific one. This manuscript aims to show the scope of literature available on the strengths and weaknesses of modern zoos regarding wild animal welfare. We provide information useful to argue why zoos are important in modern society and factors that influence welfare are examined. Some potentially stressful stimuli may diminish animal welfare in zoo animals, while some of the benefits zoos offer to conservation and science include the opportunity to study and learn about different aspects necessary to improve management practices; the possibility of breeding wild animals in zoos has been a key factor in the recovery of species that have improved their conservation status. Animal welfare is an essential part of wildlife conservation, so efforts should be directed to ensure the best possible quality of life and optimum conditions of all zoo animals in our care.

Thermal homeostasis in the newborn puppy: behavioral and physiological responses

Adaptation to extrauterine life brings about various changes, which initially are reflected in physiological alterations in the newborn puppy. Also, the newborn puppy's thermoregulating capacity is deficient, and many of the physiological processes for survival depend on this capacity. Severe modifications in body temperature can lead to hypothermia in a few hours. Hence, the first 24 to 72 h of life correspond to the highest risk time, in which the newborn can course with moderate to severe hypothermia because the shivering reflexes and vasoconstriction mechanisms are not yet developed in the newborn of this species. Temperature stabilization is reached up to the 18th day of age. However, the colostrum's adequate consumption could provide a high energy supply, contributing to a fast recovery of temperature and, consequently, to a high survival rate. This review aims to analyze the factors that affect thermoregulation of the newborn puppy, the physiological and behavioral responses, as well as to discuss the influence of the colostrum as an energy source and production of heat to face hypothermia, aside from discussing recent scientific findings of infrared thermography (IRT) used to assess the thermal response of the newborn puppy to cope with hypothermia.(AU)

Thermal homeostasis in the newborn puppy: behavioral and physiological responses

Adaptation to extrauterine life brings about various changes, which initially are reflected in physiological alterations in the newborn puppy. Also, the newborn puppy's thermoregulating capacity is deficient, and many of the physiological processes for survival depend on this capacity. Severe modifications in body temperature can lead to hypothermia in a few hours. Hence, the first 24 to 72 h of life correspond to the highest risk time, in which the newborn can course with moderate to severe hypothermia because the shivering reflexes and vasoconstriction mechanisms are not yet developed in the newborn of this species. Temperature stabilization is reached up to the 18th day of age. However, the colostrum's adequate consumption could provide a high energy supply, contributing to a fast recovery of temperature and, consequently, to a high survival rate. This review aims to analyze the factors that affect thermoregulation of the newborn puppy, the physiological and behavioral responses, as well as to discuss the influence of the colostrum as an energy source and production of heat to face hypothermia, aside from discussing recent scientific findings of infrared thermography (IRT) used to assess the thermal response of the newborn puppy to cope with hypothermia.

Thermal biology in river buffalo in the humid tropics: neurophysiological and behavioral responses assessed by infrared thermography

The present review aims to analyze the effect of extremely hot climates on the neurophysiological responses of thermal control and behavior in the river buffalo. Understanding thermal neuromodulation and its effects on the buffalo's behavior is of central importance, for this will allow us to make better decisions in terms of improving the level of welfare of buffaloes living in environments characterized by extreme heat, such as the humid tropics. The thermoregulation process involves a complex mechanism that begins with the integration of peripheral signals that are sent to the lateral parabrachial nucleus of the brainstem and then to the preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus to generate physiological variations such as vasodilatation to dissipate heat under conditions of thermal stress, or vasoconstriction to conserve heat upon the perception of cold stimuli. The thermal biology of the river buffalo is based on several different adaptation mechanisms. The infrared thermography (IRT) technique will be of great help in this area because it permits the detection of vascular microcirculation changes in different thermal windows under adverse climatic conditions. Although buffaloes are classified as rustic animals, it is important to take into account their morpho-physiology and thermoregulation mechanisms to prevent thermal stress and the resulting poor welfare and reduced productivity. However, if appropriate thermoregulation facilities are provided (i.e., ponds, pools, potholes, or swampy areas), buffaloes can properly thermoregulate and tolerate high ambient temperatures. Therefore, they may represent a good option and an appropriate animal-based enterprise under climate change and global warming conditions.(AU)

Hypothermia in newly born piglets: Mechanisms of thermoregulation and pathophysiology of death

Mortality in piglets during the perinatal period, especially the first days after birth, is frequently caused by non infectious conditions, such as hypoglucemia or low birth weight, which can be associated with hypothermia experienced at birth. The thermal stability of newborn piglets is a fundamental aspect of neonatal care, so maintaining a constant, ideal temperature will substantially reduce newborn mortality. Species-specific characteristics, such as a limited capacity for thermoregulation, low energy reserves, a lack of brown adipose tissue (BAT) (-, and environmental conditions that are adverse for the piglet around the time of birth, including the absence of a microclimate, all of them contribute to difficulties in reaching thermal homeostasis in the first hours post-birth. Shivering thermogenesis and behavioral modifications to regulate body temperature through innate mechanisms allow animals to reduce their energy expenditures. Some body postures are effective in reducing contact with the floor and also nestling are useful to avoid heat loss, and also decreases heat dissipation. Achieving optimal development of thermoregulation is a challenge that newborns must confront to successfully adapt to extrauterine life. The objectives of this review, are to discuss the adverse factors that can lead to a death event due to hypothermia by analyzing the thermoregulation mechanisms at the central and cutaneous levels, also to analyze the harmful impacts that surviving neonate piglets confront in an unfavorable thermal environment, and to describe the pathophysiological mechanisms of death caused by hypothermia.(AU)

Quality of death in the river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

Results on appropriate, inappropriate, and painful slaughtering methods of river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are discussed. Undesirable consequences of poor desensitization and/or slaughtering procedures, causing pain and suffering to animals, are also approached. These considerations are relevant as unsuitable methods can reduce consumer acceptance and commercial value of the meat obtained from animals undergoing deficient slaughtering procedures due to a lack of concern regarding their welfare. Relevant databases –Scopus, Science Direct, and PubMedwere searched for this review, including keywords such as pain, slaughter, stunning, Bubalus bubalis, and animal welfare. A detailed description of river buffalo's encephalic anatomy was compared to cattle concerning correct stunning and slaughter methods. The neurobiological processes of pain felt by animals when inadequately desensitized was also examined. Finally, recent findings on stunning methods for buffaloes were discussed, including encephalography. It was concluded that different animal species may require different stunning methods; at the same time, the optimal anatomical site also varies between species. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to train the personnel performing these procedures (transport, stunning, slaughtering) to avoid mishandling that jeopardizes animal welfare by generating stimuli that trigger neurophysiological responses and, in turn, translate into pain during slaughter and reduced meat quality.(AU)

Quality of death in the river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

Results on appropriate, inappropriate, and painful slaughtering methods of river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are discussed. Undesirable consequences of poor desensitization and/or slaughtering procedures, causing pain and suffering to animals, are also approached. These considerations are relevant as unsuitable methods can reduce consumer acceptance and commercial value of the meat obtained from animals undergoing deficient slaughtering procedures due to a lack of concern regarding their welfare. Relevant databases –Scopus, Science Direct, and PubMedwere searched for this review, including keywords such as pain, slaughter, stunning, Bubalus bubalis, and animal welfare. A detailed description of river buffalo's encephalic anatomy was compared to cattle concerning correct stunning and slaughter methods. The neurobiological processes of pain felt by animals when inadequately desensitized was also examined. Finally, recent findings on stunning methods for buffaloes were discussed, including encephalography. It was concluded that different animal species may require different stunning methods; at the same time, the optimal anatomical site also varies between species. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to train the personnel performing these procedures (transport, stunning, slaughtering) to avoid mishandling that jeopardizes animal welfare by generating stimuli that trigger neurophysiological responses and, in turn, translate into pain during slaughter and reduced meat quality.(AU)

Hypothermia in newly born piglets: Mechanisms of thermoregulation and pathophysiology of death

Mortality in piglets during the perinatal period, especially the first days after birth, is frequently caused by non infectious conditions, such as hypoglucemia or low birth weight, which can be associated with hypothermia experienced at birth. The thermal stability of newborn piglets is a fundamental aspect of neonatal care, so maintaining a constant, ideal temperature will substantially reduce newborn mortality. Species-specific characteristics, such as a limited capacity for thermoregulation, low energy reserves, a lack of brown adipose tissue (BAT) (-, and environmental conditions that are adverse for the piglet around the time of birth, including the absence of a microclimate, all of them contribute to difficulties in reaching thermal homeostasis in the first hours post-birth. Shivering thermogenesis and behavioral modifications to regulate body temperature through innate mechanisms allow animals to reduce their energy expenditures. Some body postures are effective in reducing contact with the floor and also nestling are useful to avoid heat loss, and also decreases heat dissipation. Achieving optimal development of thermoregulation is a challenge that newborns must confront to successfully adapt to extrauterine life. The objectives of this review, are to discuss the adverse factors that can lead to a death event due to hypothermia by analyzing the thermoregulation mechanisms at the central and cutaneous levels, also to analyze the harmful impacts that surviving neonate piglets confront in an unfavorable thermal environment, and to describe the pathophysiological mechanisms of death caused by hypothermia.

Thermal biology in river buffalo in the humid tropics: neurophysiological and behavioral responses assessed by infrared thermography

The present review aims to analyze the effect of extremely hot climates on the neurophysiological responses of thermal control and behavior in the river buffalo. Understanding thermal neuromodulation and its effects on the buffalo's behavior is of central importance, for this will allow us to make better decisions in terms of improving the level of welfare of buffaloes living in environments characterized by extreme heat, such as the humid tropics. The thermoregulation process involves a complex mechanism that begins with the integration of peripheral signals that are sent to the lateral parabrachial nucleus of the brainstem and then to the preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus to generate physiological variations such as vasodilatation to dissipate heat under conditions of thermal stress, or vasoconstriction to conserve heat upon the perception of cold stimuli. The thermal biology of the river buffalo is based on several different adaptation mechanisms. The infrared thermography (IRT) technique will be of great help in this area because it permits the detection of vascular microcirculation changes in different thermal windows under adverse climatic conditions. Although buffaloes are classified as rustic animals, it is important to take into account their morpho-physiology and thermoregulation mechanisms to prevent thermal stress and the resulting poor welfare and reduced productivity. However, if appropriate thermoregulation facilities are provided (i.e., ponds, pools, potholes, or swampy areas), buffaloes can properly thermoregulate and tolerate high ambient temperatures. Therefore, they may represent a good option and an appropriate animal-based enterprise under climate change and global warming conditions.

Quality of death in the river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

Results on appropriate, inappropriate, and painful slaughtering methods of river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are discussed. Undesirable consequences of poor desensitization and/or slaughtering procedures, causing pain and suffering to animals, are also approached. These considerations are relevant as unsuitable methods can reduce consumer acceptance and commercial value of the meat obtained from animals undergoing deficient slaughtering procedures due to a lack of concern regarding their welfare. Relevant databases –Scopus, Science Direct, and PubMed– were searched for this review, including keywords such as pain, slaughter, stunning, Bubalus bubalis, and animal welfare. A detailed description of river buffalo's encephalic anatomy was compared to cattle concerning correct stunning and slaughter methods. The neurobiological processes of pain felt by animals when inadequately desensitized was also examined. Finally, recent findings on stunning methods for buffaloes were discussed, including encephalography. It was concluded that different animal species may require different stunning methods; at the same time, the optimal anatomical site also varies between species. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to train the personnel performing these procedures (transport, stunning, slaughtering) to avoid mishandling that jeopardizes animal welfare by generating stimuli that trigger neurophysiological responses and, in turn, translate into pain during slaughter and reduced meat quality.

Weaning strategies to improve productivity and animal welfare in zebu (Bos indicus) and water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis)

Information on approaches to weaning zebu (Bos indicus) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) calves is scarce in proportion to studies of breeds of B. taurus cattle, whetherdairy or beef. Little research has been done to test or validate methods evolved in cattle-ranching to these other species.Hence, expanding our understanding of appropriate, species specific methods of weaning could support the development ofapproaches or strategies that have the potential to improve animal welfare and productive performance in temperate or tropical climes. This review focuses on traditional and currentweaning strategies in an attempt to improve productivity and animal welfare for water buffaloes and zebus. For the case of the water buffalo, it examines common, routine weaningtechniques and procedures as well as novel approaches, while for the zebu it discusses abrupt versus gradual and early versuslate weaning as strategies and routines usually employed during this process. Finally, it analyses how new weaning techniques may reduce stress while enhancing productivity atthe same time. These approaches include fence-line weaning, nose-flaps (plastic devices that prevent the calf from grabbing a teat to suckle), restricted suckling and a section on practicaltips to decrease the stress induced by weaning in zebus. A better understanding of certain weaning techniques could, therefore, benefit calf welfare while simultaneously increasingcows' reproductive performance. Unfortunately, data on such approaches is scant, so despite published findings, several key issues remain unsolved living room for additional studies.(AU)