Toxicological evaluation of different pesticides in Tetragonisca angustula Latreille (Hymenoptera, Apidae)

The stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula is an important pollinator of different agricultural and native crops. This study evaluated changes in the relative activity of esterases and critical electrolyte concentration in brain cells after exposure to pesticides malathion and thiamethoxam. Lethal concentration 50% showed greater toxicity of thiamethoxam in relation to malathion. Esterases EST-3 and EST-4 (carboxylesterase) were partially inhibited after contamination by contact and ingestion of malathion and contamination by contact with thiamethoxam, suggesting participation of these esterases in the metabolization of these compounds. The lowest critical electrolyte concentration (CEC) was found after contamination by malathion ingestion (0.15 M), indicating changes in gene expression. The alterations observed in the intensity of EST-3 and EST-4 and the chromatin structure indicate that pesticides can act in gene expression and be used as biomarkers of contaminant residues. Furthermore, knowing the susceptibility of T. angustulabees to pesticides, it would be possible to use this species for biomonitoring environmental quality in preserved areas and agroecosystems.(AU)

Comparative toxicity of fipronil, malathion, and thiamethoxam on the stingless bee Tetragonisca fiebrigi (Schwarz, 1938)

Stingless bees are important pollinators for various plant crops. We investigated the susceptibility of Tetragonisca fiebrigito sublethal concentrations of insecticides fipronil, malathion, and thiamethoxam (administered through contact and ingestion) by determining the LC50values after 24hoursof exposure and analyzing changes in the activity of esterase isoenzymes and the chromatin in brain cells. The LC50values showed that all three insecticides were highly toxic through contact and ingestion. Electrophoretic analysis revealed that the relative EST-4 (carboxylesterase) activity in T. fiebrigi was partially inhibited by malathion and fipronil ingestion. Moreover, the EST-4 band intensity was increased following high-concentration thiamethoxam (contact) exposure, indicating the increased relative activity of this isoenzyme to detoxify the compound. In the cytochemical analysis of brain cells, the critical electrolyte concentration (CEC) points for the control stingless bees and malathion ingestion-exposed and thiamethoxam-exposed (contact and ingestion) stingless bees were in the range of 0.20-0.30 M MgCl2, whereas that for malathion contact-exposed bees was 0.15 M MgCl2, indicating chromatin relaxation and suggesting an increase in gene expression. In conclusion, T. fiebrigistingless bees are susceptible to the insecticides tested, and the parameters analyzed may be used as biomarkers to detect the presence of these compounds.(AU)

Response and tolerance mechanism of food crops under high temperature stress: a review

Abstract High temperature stress events are critical factors inhibiting crop yield. Meanwhile, world population is growing very rapidly and will be reached up to 9 billion by 2050. To feed increasing world population, it is challenging task to increase about 70% global food productions. Food crops have significant contribution toward global food demand and food security. However, consequences from increasing heat stress events are demolishing their abilities to survive and sustain yield when subjected to extreme high temperature stress. Therefore, there is dire need to better understand response and tolerance mechanism of food crops following exposure to heat stress. Here, we aimed to provide recent update on impact of high temperature stress on crop yield of food crops, pollination, pollinators, and novel strategies for improving tolerance of food crop under high temperature stress. Importantly, development of heat-resistant transgenic food crops can grant food security through transformation of superior genes into current germplasm, which are associated with various signaling pathways as well as epigenetic regulation in response to extreme high temperature stress.

Resumo Eventos de estresse de alta temperatura são fatores críticos que inibem o rendimento das culturas. Enquanto isso, a população mundial está crescendo muito rapidamente e atingirá até 9 bilhões em 2050. Para alimentar a crescente população mundial, é uma tarefa desafiadora aumentar cerca de 70% da produção global de alimentos. As culturas alimentares têm uma contribuição significativa para a procura global de alimentos e a segurança alimentar. No entanto, as consequências do aumento de eventos de estresse por calor estão destruindo suas habilidades de sobreviver e manter a produção quando submetidos a estresse de alta temperatura. Portanto, há uma necessidade urgente de entender melhor o mecanismo de resposta e tolerância das safras de alimentos após a exposição ao estresse por calor. Aqui, nosso objetivo foi fornecer atualizações recentes sobre o impacto do estresse de alta temperatura no rendimento de culturas de alimentos, polinização, polinizadores e novas estratégias para melhorar a tolerância de culturas de alimentos sob estresse de alta temperatura. É importante ressaltar que o desenvolvimento de culturas alimentares transgênicas resistentes ao calor pode garantir segurança alimentar por meio da transformação de genes superiores em germoplasma atual, que estão associados a várias vias de sinalização, bem como à regulação epigenética em resposta ao estresse de alta temperatura extrema.

Response and tolerance mechanism of food crops under high temperature stress: a review / Mecanismo de resposta e tolerância de culturas alimentares sob estresse de alta temperatura: uma revisão

High temperature stress events are critical factors inhibiting crop yield. Meanwhile, world population is growing very rapidly and will be reached up to 9 billion by 2050. To feed increasing world population, it is challenging task to increase about 70% global food productions. Food crops have significant contribution toward global food demand and food security. However, consequences from increasing heat stress events are demolishing their abilities to survive and sustain yield when subjected to extreme high temperature stress. Therefore, there is dire need to better understand response and tolerance mechanism of food crops following exposure to heat stress. Here, we aimed to provide recent update on impact of high temperature stress on crop yield of food crops, pollination, pollinators, and novel strategies for improving tolerance of food crop under high temperature stress. Importantly, development of heat-resistant transgenic food crops can grant food security through transformation of superior genes into current germplasm, which are associated with various signaling pathways as well as epigenetic regulation in response to extreme high temperature stress.

Eventos de estresse de alta temperatura são fatores críticos que inibem o rendimento das culturas. Enquanto isso, a população mundial está crescendo muito rapidamente e atingirá até 9 bilhões em 2050. Para alimentar a crescente população mundial, é uma tarefa desafiadora aumentar cerca de 70% da produção global de alimentos. As culturas alimentares têm uma contribuição significativa para a procura global de alimentos e a segurança alimentar. No entanto, as consequências do aumento de eventos de estresse por calor estão destruindo suas habilidades de sobreviver e manter a produção quando submetidos a estresse de alta temperatura. Portanto, há uma necessidade urgente de entender melhor o mecanismo de resposta e tolerância das safras de alimentos após a exposição ao estresse por calor. Aqui, nosso objetivo foi fornecer atualizações recentes sobre o impacto do estresse de alta temperatura no rendimento de culturas de alimentos, polinização, polinizadores e novas estratégias para melhorar a tolerância de culturas de alimentos sob estresse de alta temperatura. É importante ressaltar que o desenvolvimento de culturas alimentares transgênicas resistentes ao calor pode garantir segurança alimentar por meio da transformação de genes superiores em germoplasma atual, que estão associados a várias vias de sinalização, bem como à regulação epigenética em resposta ao estresse de alta temperatura extrema.

The variable success of in vitro maturation: can we do better?

The efficiency of in vitro assisted reproductive technologies, consisting of the transfer of embryos obtained in vitro through in vitro maturation, in vitro fertilization and early embryo culture is still limited. The quality of the oocytes is pivotal for assisted reproductive efficiency and the maturation of the oocyte represents the first key limiting step of the in vitro embryo production system. At the time of removal from the antral follicles, the oocyte is still completing the final growth and differentiation steps, needed to provide the so-called developmental competence, i.e. the machinery required to sustain fertilization and embryo development. In mono-ovular species only one oocyte per cycle is available for procreation, therefore the current assisted reproduction techniques strive to overcome this natural boundary. However, the success is still limited and overall the effectiveness does not exceed the efficiency achieved in millions of years of mammalian evolution. One of the problems lies in the intrinsic heterogeneity of the oocytes that are subjected to in vitro maturation and in the lack of dedicated in vitro approaches to finalize the differentiation process. In this review we will try to overview some of the salient aspects of current practices by emphasizing the most critical and fundamental features in oocyte differentiation that should be carefully considered for improving current techniques

The variable success of in vitro maturation: can we do better?

The efficiency of in vitro assisted reproductive technologies, consisting of the transfer of embryos obtained in vitro through in vitro maturation, in vitro fertilization and early embryo culture is still limited. The quality of the oocytes is pivotal for assisted reproductive efficiency and the maturation of the oocyte represents the first key limiting step of the in vitro embryo production system. At the time of removal from the antral follicles, the oocyte is still completing the final growth and differentiation steps, needed to provide the so-called developmental competence, i.e. the machinery required to sustain fertilization and embryo development. In mono-ovular species only one oocyte per cycle is available for procreation, therefore the current assisted reproduction techniques strive to overcome this natural boundary. However, the success is still limited and overall the effectiveness does not exceed the efficiency achieved in millions of years of mammalian evolution. One of the problems lies in the intrinsic heterogeneity of the oocytes that are subjected to in vitro maturation and in the lack of dedicated in vitro approaches to finalize the differentiation process. In this review we will try to overview some of the salient aspects of current practices by emphasizing the most critical and fundamental features in oocyte differentiation that should be carefully considered for improving current techniques(AU)

Head morphometry and chromatin instability in normal boar spermatozoa and in spermatozoa with cytoplasmic droplets

In boar studs, morphological analyses are used to evaluate sperm quality and there by categorize ejaculates as either approved or rejected. Normally, morphological characteristics correlate with chromatin disorders, but studies to date have only considered the average of abnormalities; cells were not segregated as normal or abnormal. The aim of this study was to assess whether the presence of cytoplasmic droplets was associated with morphometric characteristics and chromatin instability of spermatozoa heads. Morphological analyses were performed on semen from 11 boars using phase contrast microscopy (200 cells per sample). Normal cells were differentiated from those with cytoplasmic droplets and both types were evaluated separately. Photomicrographs were acquired ofnormal spermatozoa (Group NOR, N = 1,207) as well as spermatozoa with proximal and distal cytoplasmic droplets (Group DROP, N = 725). Sperm-head morphometry and chromatin structure were evaluated using the toluidine blue technique. Spermatozoa heads in the DROP group were longer (8.37 ± 0.60 × 8.31 ± 0.53; P = 0.025), narrower (4.16 ± 0.21 × 4.19 ± 0.19; P = 0.03), And more symmetric on the sides (0.973 ± 0.012 × 0.971 ± 0.011; P = 0.007) than were spermatozoa heads of the NOR group. The DROP group also had a greater average ellipticity (0.335 ± 0.034 × 0.329 ± 0.031; P= 0.0004),a greater percentage of decondensed chromatin (2.71 ± 3.87 × 2.28 ± 1.38; P < 0.0008), and a greater chromatin heterogeneity (4.66 ± 1.40 × 4.40 ± 1.42;P < 0.0001). A greater frequency of semen collection results in a shorter period of cell maturation and this probably affected the degree of chromatin condensation and the cytoplasmic droplet migration, with concomitant effect onthe head morphometry measurements.

Head morphometry and chromatin instability in normal boar spermatozoa and in spermatozoa with cytoplasmic droplets

In boar studs, morphological analyses are used to evaluate sperm quality and there by categorize ejaculates as either approved or rejected. Normally, morphological characteristics correlate with chromatin disorders, but studies to date have only considered the average of abnormalities; cells were not segregated as normal or abnormal. The aim of this study was to assess whether the presence of cytoplasmic droplets was associated with morphometric characteristics and chromatin instability of spermatozoa heads. Morphological analyses were performed on semen from 11 boars using phase contrast microscopy (200 cells per sample). Normal cells were differentiated from those with cytoplasmic droplets and both types were evaluated separately. Photomicrographs were acquired ofnormal spermatozoa (Group NOR, N = 1,207) as well as spermatozoa with proximal and distal cytoplasmic droplets (Group DROP, N = 725). Sperm-head morphometry and chromatin structure were evaluated using the toluidine blue technique. Spermatozoa heads in the DROP group were longer (8.37 ± 0.60 × 8.31 ± 0.53; P = 0.025), narrower (4.16 ± 0.21 × 4.19 ± 0.19; P = 0.03), And more symmetric on the sides (0.973 ± 0.012 × 0.971 ± 0.011; P = 0.007) than were spermatozoa heads of the NOR group. The DROP group also had a greater average ellipticity (0.335 ± 0.034 × 0.329 ± 0.031; P= 0.0004),a greater percentage of decondensed chromatin (2.71 ± 3.87 × 2.28 ± 1.38; P < 0.0008), and a greater chromatin heterogeneity (4.66 ± 1.40 × 4.40 ± 1.42;P < 0.0001). A greater frequency of semen collection results in a shorter period of cell maturation and this probably affected the degree of chromatin condensation and the cytoplasmic droplet migration, with concomitant effect onthe head morphometry measurements.(AU)

Practical applications of sperm selection techniques for improving reproductive efficiency

Several selection techniques are available for processing spermatozoa. Apart from sperm washing to remove seminal plasma, only “swim-up” and colloid centrifugation have been used to any extent to prepare spermatozoa for in vitro fertilization, and only colloid centrifugation has been used to prepare sperm samples for artificial insemination. Single-layer centrifugation (SLC) through a species-specific colloid has been shown to be effective in selecting spermatozoa with good motility, normal morphology and intact chromatin in a range of species. This method is less timeconsuming than swim-up, and has been scaled-up to allow whole ejaculates to be processed in a practical manner. The applications of SLC are as follows: to improve sperm quality in insemination doses or in samples for in vitro fertilization, to increase the shelf life of normal sperm doses, to remove pathogens (viruses, bacteria), to improve cryosurvival by removing dead and dying spermatozoa before freezing or after thawing, to select spermatozoa for intracytoplasmic sperm injection, and to aid conservation breeding.

Practical applications of sperm selection techniques for improving reproductive efficiency

Several selection techniques are available for processing spermatozoa. Apart from sperm washing to remove seminal plasma, only “swim-up” and colloid centrifugation have been used to any extent to prepare spermatozoa for in vitro fertilization, and only colloid centrifugation has been used to prepare sperm samples for artificial insemination. Single-layer centrifugation (SLC) through a species-specific colloid has been shown to be effective in selecting spermatozoa with good motility, normal morphology and intact chromatin in a range of species. This method is less timeconsuming than swim-up, and has been scaled-up to allow whole ejaculates to be processed in a practical manner. The applications of SLC are as follows: to improve sperm quality in insemination doses or in samples for in vitro fertilization, to increase the shelf life of normal sperm doses, to remove pathogens (viruses, bacteria), to improve cryosurvival by removing dead and dying spermatozoa before freezing or after thawing, to select spermatozoa for intracytoplasmic sperm injection, and to aid conservation breeding.(AU)

Determinação da Protamina 1 e Protamina 2 em touros de alta e de baixa fertilidade a campo

Os touros que são utilizados nas centrais de reprodução são considerados como normospérmicos, mas o rendimento a campo entre eles pode diferir em até 40%. Sugere-se que análises convencionais de sêmen não sejam capazes de predizer a capacidade fecundante real dos gametas, criando a necessidade de avaliar outros parâmetros que permitam identificar a fertilidade real dos touros. O status da cromatina espermática é relevante para a manutenção da fertilidade do espermatozoide, pois este carrega a informação genética paterna necessária para uma correta fertilização e o desenvolvimento embrionário subsequente. A cromatina espermática trata-se de uma estrutura composta por DNA ligada fortemente à PRM1 e PRM2. Entre os mamíferos, existe uma relação ideal (PRM1:PRM2) para uma adequada compactação do DNA espermático, caso contrário a fertilidade é comprometida. Em espermatozoides humanos e murinos, a expressão da PRM1 e PRM2 é relacionada com o nível de fertilidade. A protaminação dos espermatozoides bovinos era atribuída somente à Protamina 1 até a recente identificação da Protamina 2 em espermatozoides maduros. Portanto, este trabalho objetivou determinar as possíveis relações entre PRM1 e PRM2 em touros Nelore e Angus de diferente fertilidade a campo. Cada unidade experimental (touro) foi representada por um pool de 4 partidas diferentes e submetida ao ensaio de suscetibilidade da cromatina espermática (SCSA modificado), teste de Cromomicina A3 (CMA3) e quantificação absoluta dos transcritos para os genes PRM1, PRM2 e TNP1 por meio de qPCR. Os resultados demonstraram que não houve diferença significante entre os grupos de alta e baixa fertilidade para nenhuma das raças para as análises consideradas. Dentro do grupo dos Nelore, a quantificação absoluta do número de cópias dos transcritos da PRM1 e PRM2 permitiu estabelecer uma relação PRM1:PRM2 de 1: 0,079 para o grupo de alta fertilidade e 1: 0,007 para os de baixa fertilidade. Nos Angus, foi observado uma relação 1: 0,27 para os touros de alta fertilidade e 1: 0,016 para os de baixa. Na sequência, foi realizada uma análise de interação entre raças, na qual os ejaculados dos touros Nelore apresentaram maior número de cópias de transcritos de PRM1 (Nelore=0,986±0,39; Angus=0,052±0,012) e de células com deficiência de protaminação (Nelore=0,259 ±0,033; Angus= 0,078 ±0,019). Contraditoriamente, os ejaculados dos touros Angus apresentaram maior quantidade de espermatozoides com suscetibilidade à fragmentação (Nelore=0,338±0,292; Angus= 1,7505±0,185). Foi observada uma relação entre PRM1:PRM2 de 1: 0,074 para os ejaculados dos touros Nelore e 1: 0,23 para os Angus. Os resultados observados neste trabalho não permitiram explicar a diferença de fertilidade entre touros de diferentes raças agrupados por fertilidade; no entanto, foram observadas diferenças na relação de transcritos de protamina (PRM1 e 2) nos espermatozoides de touros Nelore e Angus, que podem refletir no aparecimento de células com deficiência de protaminação e mais susceptíveis à fragmentação de DNA.

Bulls that are used in breeding centers are considered normospermic, despite the fertility rates can differ up to 40%. It is suggested that conventional semen analyzes are not able to predict the real fertilizing capacity of the spermatozoa, creating the need to evaluate other parameters that allow the identification of fertile bulls. The status of sperm chromatin is relevant for the maintenance of sperm fertility, as it carries the paternal genetic information, which is necessary for correct fertilization and subsequent embryonic development. Sperm chromatin is a structure composed of DNA tightly bound to PRM1 and PRM2. Among mammals, there is an ideal ratio (PRM1:PRM2) for an adequate compaction of sperm DNA, otherwise fertility is compromised. In human and murine sperm, the expression of PRM1 and PRM2 is related to the level of fertility. Protamine in bovine sperm was attributed only to Protamine 1 until the recent identification of Protamine 2 in mature sperm. Therefore, this work aimed to determine the possible relationships between PRM1 and PRM2 in Nellore and Angus bulls of different sire conception rates (SCR). Each experimental unit (bull) was represented by a "pool" of 4 different batches and submitted to the sperm chromatin susceptibility test (SCSA adapted), Chromomycin A3 analysis (CMA3) and absolute quantification of transcripts for PRM1, PRM2 and TNP1 genes through qPCR. High and low fertility groups were similar (p> 0,05) for all analysis considered, regardless of breed. Within the Nellore group, the absolute quantification of the copy number of the PRM1 and PRM2 transcripts allowed us to establish a PRM1:PRM2 ratio of 1:0.079 for the high fertility group and 1:0.007 for the low fertility group. In Angus, a ratio of 1:0.27 was observed for bulls with high fertility and 1:0.016 for the low fertility. Also, an interaction analysis between breeds was performed, in which the ejaculates of Nellore bulls had a higher number of copies of PRM1 transcripts (Nellore=0.986±0.396; Angus=0.052±0.012) and more cells with protamine deficiency (Nellore =0.259 ±0.033; Angus=0.078 ±0.019). In contrast, the ejaculates of Angus bulls had a greater amount of sperm with susceptibility to fragmentation (Nellore=0.338 ±0.292; Angus= 1.7505±0.185). A relationship between PRM1:PRM2 of 1:0.074 for the ejaculates from Nellore bulls and 1:0.23 from Angus bulls was observed. The results from this work could not explain the difference in fertility between bulls of different breeds grouped by fertility rate; however, we observed differences in the ratio of protamine transcripts (PRM1 and 2) in spermatozoa from Nellore and Angus bulls, which could reflect in the appearance of cells with protamine deficiency and more susceptible to DNA fragmentation.

Impaired protamination and sperm DNA damage in a Nellore bull with high percentages of morphological sperm defects in comparison to normospermic bulls / Deficiências de protaminação e danos de DNA no sêmen de um touro Nelore com elevada porcentagem de patologias espermáticas em comparação a touros normospérmicos

The routine semen evaluation assessing sperm concentration, motility and morphology, does not identify subtle defects in sperm chromatin architecture. Bulls appear to have stable chromatin, with low levels of DNA fragmentation. However, the nature of fragmentation and its impact on fertility remain unclear and there are no detailed reports characterizing the DNA organization and damage in this species. The intensive genetic selection, the use of artificial insemination and in vitro embryo production associated to the cryopreservation process can contribute to the chromatin damage and highlights the importance of sperm DNA integrity for the success of these technologies. Frozen-thawed semen samples from three ejaculates from a Nellore bull showed high levels of morphological sperm abnormalities (55.8±5.1%), and were selected for complementary tests. Damage of acrosomal (76.9±8.9%) and plasma membranes (75.7±9.3%) as well as sperm DNA strand breaks (13.8±9.5%) and protamination deficiency (3.7±0.6%) were significantly higher compared to the values measured in the semen of five Nellore bulls with normospermia (24.3±3.3%; 24.5±6.1%; 0.6±0.5%; 0.4±0.6% for acrosome, plasma membrane, DNA breaks and protamine deficiency, respectively) (P<0.05). Motility and percentage of spermatozoa with low mitochondrial potential showed no differences between groups. This study shows how routine semen analyses (in this case morphology) may point to the length and complexity of sperm cell damage emphasizing the importance of sperm function testing.(AU)

O exame de rotina de sêmen, o qual avalia a concentração de espermatozoides, a motilidade e a morfologia, pode não identificar defeitos sutis na arquitetura da cromatina de espermatozoides. Os touros parecem ter cromatina estável com baixos níveis de fragmentação do DNA. No entanto, a natureza da fragmentação e o seu impacto sobre a fertilidade ainda não estão claros e não há relatos que caracterizam a organização do DNA e os danos nessa espécie com mais detalhes. A seleção genética intensiva e o uso da inseminação artificial e da produção in vitro de embriões, além do processo de criopreservação, podem contribuir para o dano da cromatina, e sabe-se a importância da integridade do DNA espermático para o sucesso dessas tecnologias. Amostras de sêmen de três ejaculados de um touro Nelore com altos níveis de alterações morfológicas (55,8±5,1%) foram selecionadas para realização de exames complementares. Os danos de acrossoma (76,9±8,9%) e das membranas plasmáticas (75,7±9,3%), bem como quebras de fita de DNA de espermatozoides (13,8±9,5) e deficiência de protamina (3,7±0,6) foram significativamente maiores em comparação aos valores avaliados no sêmen de cinco touros Nelore com normospermia (24,3±3,3%; 24,5±6,1%; 0,6±0,5%; 0,4±0,6% para acrossoma, membrana plasmática, quebras de DNA e deficiência de protamina, respectivamente) (p<0,05). Motilidade e porcentagem de espermatozoides com baixo potencial mitocondrial não diferiram estatisticamente. Essas avaliações mostram que análises de sêmen de rotina (neste caso, morfologia) podem apontar para a extensão e a complexidade dos danos na célula espermática, o que indica que a deficiência de protamina e os danos no DNA podem ocorrer simultaneamente a defeitos morfológicos. Tal ocorrência enfatiza a importância das análises de sêmen clássicas e dos testes complementares.(AU)

Investigando a compactação e a fragmentação não induzida do DNA espermático: refinamento da avaliação espermática parte 1 / Investigating condensation and not induced fragmentation of sperm DNA: Refinement of sperm evaluation first part

O DNA espermático possui papel essencial na reprodução, visto que danos no material genético podemprejudicar os processos de fecundação e desenvolvimento embrionário. Ademais, há evidências de que danos aoDNA podem ser causados por alterações epigenéticas. Entretanto, embora ainda não seja aplicada nas avaliaçõesandrológicas de rotina, faz-se essencial a avaliação do status de integridade do DNA espermático. Existemdiversas técnicas de avaliação com diferentes princípios e objetivos. A aplicação destas irá depender dosequipamentos disponíveis, do treinamento da equipe e das respostas a serem obtidas. Ainda, para a interpretaçãodos resultados obtidos, é necessário o conhecimento do princípio de análise de cada técnica. Assim, a presenterevisão, dividida em duas partes, tem por objetivo abordar diferentes técnicas de avaliação. As técnicasabordadas na parte 1 estão relacionadas às avaliações de compactação da cromatina (azul de toluidina, azul deanilina e cromomicina A3) e à avaliação direta da fragmentação de DNA (ensaio Cometa e teste de dispersão dacromatina modificado). Na parte 2, serão abordadas as técnicas de TUNEL, laranja de acridina e “SpermChromatin Structure Assay” (SCSA). Nesta revisão, serão abordados os princípios dos testes e a interpretaçãodos resultados baseados na literatura e nas pesquisas do grupo.(AU)

Sperm DNA has an important role on reproduction. Injuries in genetic material can impair thefertilization processes and embryonic development. Furthermore, there is evidence that DNA damage can becaused by epigenetic alterations. Although DNA evaluation in sperm analysis routine assessments is essential, itis not yet performed. There are numerous techniques of DNA evaluation with different principles and objectives.Application of these techniques will depend on the equipment available, the staff training and answers to berequired. To interpret the results, however, knowledge of each analysis technique is required. Therefore, thisreview, divided in two parts, aims to consider different techniques. The techniques that will be consideredthroughout the first part of review are: toluidine blue, aniline blue, A3 chromomycyn, Comet assay anddispersion test of modified chromatin. In the second part, it will be approached TUNEL, acridine orange andSperm Chromatin Structure Assay (SCSA) techniques. We will discuss the testes and the main results based onliterature and researches of our group.(AU)

Impaired protamination and sperm DNA damage in a Nellore bull with high percentages of morphological sperm defects in comparison to normospermic bulls / Deficiências de protaminação e danos de DNA no sêmen de um touro Nelore com elevada porcentagem de patologias espermáticas em comparação a touros normospérmicos

The routine semen evaluation assessing sperm concentration, motility and morphology, does not identify subtle defects in sperm chromatin architecture. Bulls appear to have stable chromatin, with low levels of DNA fragmentation. However, the nature of fragmentation and its impact on fertility remain unclear and there are no detailed reports characterizing the DNA organization and damage in this species. The intensive genetic selection, the use of artificial insemination and in vitro embryo production associated to the cryopreservation process can contribute to the chromatin damage and highlights the importance of sperm DNA integrity for the success of these technologies. Frozen-thawed semen samples from three ejaculates from a Nellore bull showed high levels of morphological sperm abnormalities (55.8±5.1%), and were selected for complementary tests. Damage of acrosomal (76.9±8.9%) and plasma membranes (75.7±9.3%) as well as sperm DNA strand breaks (13.8±9.5%) and protamination deficiency (3.7±0.6%) were significantly higher compared to the values measured in the semen of five Nellore bulls with normospermia (24.3±3.3%; 24.5±6.1%; 0.6±0.5%; 0.4±0.6% for acrosome, plasma membrane, DNA breaks and protamine deficiency, respectively) (P<0.05). Motility and percentage of spermatozoa with low mitochondrial potential showed no differences between groups. This study shows how routine semen analyses (in this case morphology) may point to the length and complexity of sperm cell damage emphasizing the importance of sperm function testing.(AU)

O exame de rotina de sêmen, o qual avalia a concentração de espermatozoides, a motilidade e a morfologia, pode não identificar defeitos sutis na arquitetura da cromatina de espermatozoides. Os touros parecem ter cromatina estável com baixos níveis de fragmentação do DNA. No entanto, a natureza da fragmentação e o seu impacto sobre a fertilidade ainda não estão claros e não há relatos que caracterizam a organização do DNA e os danos nessa espécie com mais detalhes. A seleção genética intensiva e o uso da inseminação artificial e da produção in vitro de embriões, além do processo de criopreservação, podem contribuir para o dano da cromatina, e sabe-se a importância da integridade do DNA espermático para o sucesso dessas tecnologias. Amostras de sêmen de três ejaculados de um touro Nelore com altos níveis de alterações morfológicas (55,8±5,1%) foram selecionadas para realização de exames complementares. Os danos de acrossoma (76,9±8,9%) e das membranas plasmáticas (75,7±9,3%), bem como quebras de fita de DNA de espermatozoides (13,8±9,5) e deficiência de protamina (3,7±0,6) foram significativamente maiores em comparação aos valores avaliados no sêmen de cinco touros Nelore com normospermia (24,3±3,3%; 24,5±6,1%; 0,6±0,5%; 0,4±0,6% para acrossoma, membrana plasmática, quebras de DNA e deficiência de protamina, respectivamente) (p<0,05). Motilidade e porcentagem de espermatozoides com baixo potencial mitocondrial não diferiram estatisticamente. Essas avaliações mostram que análises de sêmen de rotina (neste caso, morfologia) podem apontar para a extensão e a complexidade dos danos na célula espermática, o que indica que a deficiência de protamina e os danos no DNA podem ocorrer simultaneamente a defeitos morfológicos. Tal ocorrência enfatiza a importância das análises de sêmen clássicas e dos testes complementares.(AU)

Investigando a compactação e a fragmentação não induzida do DNA espermático: refinamento da avaliação espermática – parte 1 / Investigating condensation and not induced fragmentation of sperm DNA: Refinement of sperm evaluation – first part

O DNA espermático possui papel essencial na reprodução, visto que danos no material genético podemprejudicar os processos de fecundação e desenvolvimento embrionário. Ademais, há evidências de que danos aoDNA podem ser causados por alterações epigenéticas. Entretanto, embora ainda não seja aplicada nas avaliaçõesandrológicas de rotina, faz-se essencial a avaliação do status de integridade do DNA espermático. Existemdiversas técnicas de avaliação com diferentes princípios e objetivos. A aplicação destas irá depender dosequipamentos disponíveis, do treinamento da equipe e das respostas a serem obtidas. Ainda, para a interpretaçãodos resultados obtidos, é necessário o conhecimento do princípio de análise de cada técnica. Assim, a presenterevisão, dividida em duas partes, tem por objetivo abordar diferentes técnicas de avaliação. As técnicasabordadas na parte 1 estão relacionadas às avaliações de compactação da cromatina (azul de toluidina, azul deanilina e cromomicina A3) e à avaliação direta da fragmentação de DNA (ensaio Cometa e teste de dispersão dacromatina modificado). Na parte 2, serão abordadas as técnicas de TUNEL, laranja de acridina e “SpermChromatin Structure Assay” (SCSA). Nesta revisão, serão abordados os princípios dos testes e a interpretaçãodos resultados baseados na literatura e nas pesquisas do grupo.

Sperm DNA has an important role on reproduction. Injuries in genetic material can impair thefertilization processes and embryonic development. Furthermore, there is evidence that DNA damage can becaused by epigenetic alterations. Although DNA evaluation in sperm analysis routine assessments is essential, itis not yet performed. There are numerous techniques of DNA evaluation with different principles and objectives.Application of these techniques will depend on the equipment available, the staff training and answers to berequired. To interpret the results, however, knowledge of each analysis technique is required. Therefore, thisreview, divided in two parts, aims to consider different techniques. The techniques that will be consideredthroughout the first part of review are: toluidine blue, aniline blue, A3 chromomycyn, Comet assay anddispersion test of modified chromatin. In the second part, it will be approached TUNEL, acridine orange andSperm Chromatin Structure Assay (SCSA) techniques. We will discuss the testes and the main results based onliterature and researches of our group.

ESTUDO ULTRASSONOGRÁFICO DA PERFUSÃO RENAL EM CADELAS COM CARCINOMA MAMÁRIO TRATADAS COM CARPROFENO POR LONGOS PERÍODOS

A córnea atua como principal elemento refrativo do olho, para tal tem que manter-se transparente. O endotélio corneal é um peça chave para essa manutenção, possuindo mecanismos como a bomba de Na+ e K+ que ajudam a garantir a desturgescência corneal. Descompensações endoteliais constituem uma importante indicação de transplante da córnea, uma vez que as células endoteliais corneais apresentam limitada capacidade proliferativa. Entretanto, transplantes são procedimentos cirúrgicos complicados e de elevado custo. Alternativas e coadjuvantes medicamentosos vêm sendo estudadas. O fucoidam é uma substância que, dentre outras propriedades, promove migração e proliferação celular, portanto objetivou-se, com a presente pesquisa, avaliar seus efeitos sobre a morfologia, a ploidia e o metabolismo de células endoteliais da córnea de coelhos, após criolesão experimental. Para tal, foram realizadas avaliações quanto à morfologia e viabilidade celular empregando-se dupla marcação com corantes vitais (alizarina vermelha e azul de tripan) e ultraestrutural pela microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e de varredura. Outrossim, avaliou-se a morfometria in vivo e in vitro de seguintes parâmetros: número de células, densidade, hexagonalidade e coeficiente de variação celulares. Estudou- se o metabolismo dessas células empregando-se a imunofluorescência com observação em confocal dos anticorpos Ki-67, Na+K+/ATPase, n-Caderina e Zo-1, conjugados com Alexafluor-488. Visando-se a conseguirem conhecimentos adicionais relativos à atividade nuclear durante o processo de cicatrização do endotélio corneal na presença de fucoidam foram analisados, a partir da reação de feulgen, perímetro e área nucleares, além da supraorganização da cromatina. A criolesão ensejou piora de todos parâmetros morfométricos, com diminuição das células, densidade celular, do percentagem de células padrão com 6 lados e aumento no coeficiente de variação, a retomada aos valores normais com o decorrer do tempo foi melhor em olhos tratados com fucoidam. Nas córneas que não receberam fucoidam observou-se células desvitalizadas em todo decorer do tempo de avaliação. Houve diminuição da expressão das proteínas de junção celular (n-Caderina e Zo-1) logo após a lesão e aumento progressivo no decorrer do tempo, em contrapartida o contrário ocorreu com Ki-67, revelando aumento na proliferação celular após lesão e baixa das expressão das demais proteínas, com notável estimulação na presença do fucoidam. As características do comportamento nuclear, como descompactação da cromatina na presença do fucoidam puderam ratificar essa proliferação. O fucoidam atuou na modulação à reparação cicatricial, revelando cicatrizes menos opacas, estimulando a proliferação celular e mediando a expressão das proteínas de ligação e atuando na proteção contra morte celular.

The cornea as the main refractive element of the eye, which has to remain transparent. The corneal endothelium is a key piece for this maintenance, having mechanisms such as the Na + and K + pump that help to ensure corneal dysurgescence. Endothelial decompensations are an important indication for corneal transplantation, since the corneal endothelial cells have limited proliferative capacity. However, transplants are complicated and expensive surgical procedures. Alternatives and drug coadjuvants have been studied. Fucoidam is a substance that, among other properties, promotes cell migration and proliferation, therefore, the objective of this research was to evaluate its effects on the morphology, ploidy and metabolism of rabbit cornea endothelial cells after experimental cryoinjury. For this, evaluations were made for morphology and cell viability using double labeling with vital dye (alizarin red and tripan blue) and ultrastructural analysis by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Morphometry (in vivo and in vitro) of the following parameters were also evaluated: cell number, cell density, hexagonality and coefficient of variation. The metabolism of these cells was studied using immunofluorescence with confocal observation of the Ki-67, Na + K + / ATPase, n- Caderin and Zo-1 antibodies, conjugated to Alexafluor-488. In order to obtain additional knowledge regarding the nuclear activity during the healing process of the corneal endothelium in the presence of fucoidam were analyzed, from the feulgen reaction, nuclear perimeter and area, in addition to the chromatin supraorganization. Cryoinjury resulted in worsening of all morphometric parameters, with cell decrease, cell density, the percentage of standard cells with 6 sides and increase in coefficient of variation, the recovery to normal values with time was better in eyes treated with fucoidam. In the corneas that did not receive fucoidam devitalised cells were observed throughout the evaluation time. There was a decrease in the expression of the cellular junction proteins (n-Caderin and Zo-1) shortly after injury and progressive increase over time, whereas the opposite occurred with Ki-67, revealing increased cell proliferation after injury and low expression of the other proteins, with remarkable stimulation in the presence of fucoidam. The characteristics of nuclear behavior, such as the decomposition of chromatin in the presence of fucoidam, could confirm this proliferation. Fucoidam has been involved in modulation of scar repair, revealing less opaque scars, stimulating cell proliferation and mediating the expression of binding proteins, and acting to protect against cell death.

Large-scale chromatin structure and function changes during oogenesis: theinterplay between oocyte and companioncumulus cell

The process of chromatin configuration remodeling within the mammalian oocyte nucleus or germinal vesicle (GV), which occurs towards the end of its differentiation phase before meiotic resumption, has received much attention and has been studied in several mammals. This review is aimed to highlight the relationship between changes in chromatin configurations and to both functional and structural modifications occurring in the oocyte nuclear compartment. During the extensive phase of meiotic arrest at the diplotene stage, the chromatin enclosed within the GV is subjected to several levels of regulation. Morphologically, the chromosomes lose their individuality and form a loose chromatin mass. Then the decondensed chromatin undergoes profound rearrangements during the final stages of oocyte growth in tight association with the acquisition of meiotic and developmental competence. Functionally, the discrete stages of chromatin condensation are characterized by different level of transcriptional activity, DNA methylation and covalent histone modifications. Interestingly, the program of chromatin rearrangement is not completely intrinsic to the oocyte, but follicular cells exert their regulatory actions through gap junction mediated communications and intracellular messenger dependent mechanism(s). With this in mind and since oocyte growth mostly relies on the bidirectional crosstalk with the follicular cells, experimental manipulation of large-scale chromatin configuration is discussed. Besides providing tools to determine the key cellular pathways involved in genome-wide chromatin modifications , the present findings will aid to the refinement of physiological culture systems that can have important implications in treating human infertility as well as managing breeding schemes in animal husband .

Large-scale chromatin structure and function changes during oogenesis: theinterplay between oocyte and companioncumulus cell

The process of chromatin configuration remodeling within the mammalian oocyte nucleus or germinal vesicle (GV), which occurs towards the end of its differentiation phase before meiotic resumption, has received much attention and has been studied in several mammals. This review is aimed to highlight the relationship between changes in chromatin configurations and to both functional and structural modifications occurring in the oocyte nuclear compartment. During the extensive phase of meiotic arrest at the diplotene stage, the chromatin enclosed within the GV is subjected to several levels of regulation. Morphologically, the chromosomes lose their individuality and form a loose chromatin mass. Then the decondensed chromatin undergoes profound rearrangements during the final stages of oocyte growth in tight association with the acquisition of meiotic and developmental competence. Functionally, the discrete stages of chromatin condensation are characterized by different level of transcriptional activity, DNA methylation and covalent histone modifications. Interestingly, the program of chromatin rearrangement is not completely intrinsic to the oocyte, but follicular cells exert their regulatory actions through gap junction mediated communications and intracellular messenger dependent mechanism(s). With this in mind and since oocyte growth mostly relies on the bidirectional crosstalk with the follicular cells, experimental manipulation of large-scale chromatin configuration is discussed. Besides providing tools to determine the key cellular pathways involved in genome-wide chromatin modifications , the present findings will aid to the refinement of physiological culture systems that can have important implications in treating human infertility as well as managing breeding schemes in animal husband .(AU)

Cytochemical study of Rhodnius neglectus and Rhodnius prolixus salivary gland cells (Hemiptera, Triatominae) / Estudo citoquímico de células da glândula salivar de Rhodnius neglectus e Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera, Triatominae)

Triatomines are hematophagous bugs of medical interest in South and Central America, where they may act as invertebrate hosts of the hemoflagellate protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi (the causative of Chagas disease) and Trypanosoma rangeli (Tejera, 1920). Triatomines of Rhodnius genus have salivary gland formed by two close and independent units: the principal and the accessory. This gland secretes saliva that abounds in substances that facilitate and permit feeding. Despite this importance, there are few reports on its cytochemistry. In purpose of amplifying this understanding, in this work it was investigated the nuclear structures (chromatin and nucleolar corpuscles) of salivary gland cells of Rhodnius neglectus (Lent, 1954) and Rhodnius prolixus (Stål, 1859). The salivary glands were removed from adult insects, fixed and submitted to different cytochemical methods: lacto-acetic orcein, silver ion impregnation, Feulgen reaction, Toluidine Blue, Variant method of critical electrolyte concentration and C-banding. The results evidenced predominance of binucleated cells, with bulky and polyploid nucleus, decondensed chromatin and a large nucleolar area. In addition, cytoplasmic metachromasy and a clear association between nucleolar and heterochromatic corpuscles were observed. Such characteristics were associated with intense synthesis activity to produce saliva. Besides, the heterochromatic corpuscles observed with C Banding permitted the differentiation of sexes and species.(AU)

Os triatomíneos são insetos hematófagos que apresentam interesse médico nas América do Sul e Central por serem hospedeiros invertebrados dos protozoários hemoflagelados Trypanosoma cruzi (agente etiológico da doença de Chagas) e Trypanosoma rangeli (Tejera, 1920). Os triatomíneos do gênero Rhodnius possuem glândula salivar formada por duas unidades próximas e independentes: a principal e a acessória. Esta glândula secreta uma saliva que contém substâncias que facilitam e permitem a hematofagia. Entretanto, apesar da sua importância, poucos estudos realizaram sua análise citoquímica. No propósito de ampliar esse entendimento, neste trabalho foram investigadas as estruturas nucleares (cromatina e corpúsculos nucleolares) das células da glândula salivar de Rhodnius neglectus (Lent, 1954) e Rhodnius prolixus (Stål, 1859). As glândulas foram removidas de insetos adultos, fixadas e submetidas a diferentes métodos citoquímicos: Orceína Lacto-Acética, Impregnação por Íons de Prata, Reação de Feulgen, Azul de Toluidina, Variante da Concentração Eletrolítica Crítica e Bandamento C. Os resultados evidenciaram predomínio de células binucleadas, com núcleos volumosos e poliplóides, cromatina descondensada e uma grande área nucleolar. Além disso, foi observada metacromasia citoplasmática e uma clara associação entre os corpúsculos nucleolares e heterocromáticos. Tais características foram associadas às atividades de intensa síntese proteica para a produção de saliva. Além disso, os corpúsculos heterocromáticos observados no Bandamento C permitiram a diferenciação dos sexos e das espécies.(AU)

Cytochemical study of Rhodnius neglectus and Rhodnius prolixus salivary gland cells (Hemiptera, Triatominae) / Estudo citoquímico de células da glândula salivar de Rhodnius neglectus e Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera, Triatominae)

Triatomines are hematophagous bugs of medical interest in South and Central America, where they may act as invertebrate hosts of the hemoflagellate protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi (the causative of Chagas’ disease) and Trypanosoma rangeli (Tejera, 1920). Triatomines of Rhodnius genus have salivary gland formed by two close and independent units: the principal and the accessory. This gland secretes saliva that abounds in substances that facilitate and permit feeding. Despite this importance, there are few reports on its cytochemistry. In purpose of amplifying this understanding, in this work it was investigated the nuclear structures (chromatin and nucleolar corpuscles) of salivary gland cells of Rhodnius neglectus (Lent, 1954) and Rhodnius prolixus (Stål, 1859). The salivary glands were removed from adult insects, fixed and submitted to different cytochemical methods: lacto-acetic orcein, silver ion impregnation, Feulgen reaction, Toluidine Blue, Variant method of critical electrolyte concentration and C-banding. The results evidenced predominance of binucleated cells, with bulky and polyploid nucleus, decondensed chromatin and a large nucleolar area. In addition, cytoplasmic metachromasy and a clear association between nucleolar and heterochromatic corpuscles were observed. Such characteristics were associated with intense synthesis activity to produce saliva. Besides, the heterochromatic corpuscles observed with C Banding permitted the differentiation of sexes and species.

Os triatomíneos são insetos hematófagos que apresentam interesse médico nas América do Sul e Central por serem hospedeiros invertebrados dos protozoários hemoflagelados Trypanosoma cruzi (agente etiológico da doença de Chagas) e Trypanosoma rangeli (Tejera, 1920). Os triatomíneos do gênero Rhodnius possuem glândula salivar formada por duas unidades próximas e independentes: a principal e a acessória. Esta glândula secreta uma saliva que contém substâncias que facilitam e permitem a hematofagia. Entretanto, apesar da sua importância, poucos estudos realizaram sua análise citoquímica. No propósito de ampliar esse entendimento, neste trabalho foram investigadas as estruturas nucleares (cromatina e corpúsculos nucleolares) das células da glândula salivar de Rhodnius neglectus (Lent, 1954) e Rhodnius prolixus (Stål, 1859). As glândulas foram removidas de insetos adultos, fixadas e submetidas a diferentes métodos citoquímicos: Orceína Lacto-Acética, Impregnação por Íons de Prata, Reação de Feulgen, Azul de Toluidina, Variante da Concentração Eletrolítica Crítica e Bandamento C. Os resultados evidenciaram predomínio de células binucleadas, com núcleos volumosos e poliplóides, cromatina descondensada e uma grande área nucleolar. Além disso, foi observada metacromasia citoplasmática e uma clara associação entre os corpúsculos nucleolares e heterocromáticos. Tais características foram associadas às atividades de intensa síntese proteica para a produção de saliva. Além disso, os corpúsculos heterocromáticos observados no Bandamento C permitiram a diferenciação dos sexos e das espécies.