Spatial distribution, ecological indices and interactions of arthropods on Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) plants / Distribuição espacial, índices ecológicos e interações de artrópodes em plantas de Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae)

Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindaceae) is a pioneer species used in programs to recover degraded areas. The trees also assist in the pest control of some insects due to the composition of saponins on their leaves. In addition, these chemical components are important to pharmaceutical product production. The objective was to evaluate the impact of spatial distribution, indices and ecological relationship of arthropods on S. saponaria leaves to preserve the balance of biodiversity. Aggregated distribution of arthropods was observed; the numbers of phytophagous arthropods were higher on the adaxial leaf face than on the abaxial part. Only Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera) had a higher presence on the abaxial leaf face of S. saponaria saplings. Abundance, diversity, and species richness of natural enemies correlated positively with phytophagous and pollinators insects. On the other hand, the number of Lyriomyza sp. mines correlated negatively with Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). All this information can assist and guide integrated pest management programs.

Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindaceae) é uma espécie pioneira utilizada em programas de recuperação de áreas degradadas. As árvores também auxiliam no controle de alguns insetos pragas devido à composição de saponinas em suas folhas. Além disso, esses componentes químicos são importantes para a produção de produtos farmacêuticos. O objetivo foi avaliar o impacto da distribuição espacial, índices e relações ecológicas de artrópodes nas folhas de S. saponaria, a fim de preservar o equilíbrio da biodiversidade. Observou-se distribuição agregada; os números de artrópodes fitófagos foram maiores na face adaxial da folha do que na parte abaxial. Apenas indivíduos de Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera), tiveram maior presença na face abaxial das folhas, em mudas de S. saponaria. Abundância, diversidade e riqueza de espécies de inimigos naturais correlacionaram-se positivamente com insetos fitófagos e polinizadores. Por outro lado, o número de minas de Lyriomyza sp. correlacionou-se negativamente com o de Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Todas essas informações podem ser usadas para auxiliar e orientar programas de manejo integrado de pragas.

Honey as a bioindicator of environmental organochlorine insecticides contamination / Mel como bioindicador de contaminação ambiental de inseticidas organoclorados

Honey is a suitable matrix for the evaluation of environmental contaminants including organochlorine insecticides. The present study was conducted to evaluate residues of fifteen organochlorine insecticides in honey samples of unifloral and multifloral origins from Dir, Pakistan. Honey samples (5 g each) were extracted with GC grade organic solvents and then subjected to Rotary Evaporator till dryness. The extracts were then mixed with n-Hexane (5 ml) and purified through Column Chromatography. Purified extracts (1μl each) were processed through Gas Chromatograph coupled with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD) for identification and quantification of the insecticides. Of the 15 insecticides tested, 46.7% were detected while 53.3% were not detected in the honey samples. Heptachlor was the most prevalent insecticide with a mean level of 0.0018 mg/kg detected in 80% of the samples followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.0016 mg/kg detected in 71.4% of the honey samples. Honey samples from Acacia modesta Wall. were 100% positive for Heptachlor with a mean level of 0.0048 mg/kg followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.003 mg/kg and frequency of 83.3%. Minimum levels of the tested insecticides were detected in the unifloral honey from Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Methoxychlor, Endosulfan, Endrin and metabolites of DDT were not detected in the studied honey samples. Some of the tested insecticides are banned in Pakistan but are still detected in honey samples indicating their use in the study area. The detected levels of all insecticides were below the Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) and safe for consumers. However, the levels detected can cause mortality in insect fauna. The use of banned insecticides is one of the main factors responsible for the declining populations of important insect pollinators including honeybees.

O mel é uma matriz adequada para a avaliação de contaminantes ambientais, incluindo inseticidas organoclorados. O presente estudo foi conduzido para avaliar resíduos de 15 inseticidas organoclorados em amostras de mel de origem unifloral e multifloral de Dir, Paquistão. Amostras de mel (5 g cada) foram extraídas com solventes orgânicos de grau GC e, em seguida, submetidas ao evaporador rotativo até a secura. Os extratos foram então misturados com n-hexano (5 ml) e purificados por cromatografia em coluna. Os extratos purificados (1μl cada) foram processados através de cromatógrafo gasoso acoplado a detector de captura de elétrons (GC-ECD) para identificação e quantificação dos inseticidas. Dos 15 inseticidas testados, 46,7% foram detectados enquanto 53,3% não foram detectados nas amostras de mel. O heptacloro foi o inseticida mais prevalente com um nível médio de 0,0018 mg / kg detectado em 80% das amostras, seguido por β-HCH com um nível médio de 0,0016 mg / kg detectado em 71,4% das amostras de mel. Amostras de mel da parede de Acacia modesta foram 100% positivos para heptacloro com um nível médio de 0,0048 mg / kg seguido por β-HCH com um nível médio de 0,003 mg / kg e frequência de 83,3%. Níveis mínimos dos inseticidas testados foram detectados no mel unifloral de Ziziphus jujuba da usina. Metoxicloro, Endosulfan, Endrin e metabólitos do DDT não foram detectados nas amostras de mel estudadas. Alguns dos inseticidas testados são proibidos no Paquistão, mas ainda são detectados em amostras de mel, indicando seu uso na área de estudo. Os níveis detectados de todos os inseticidas estavam abaixo dos Níveis Máximos de Resíduos (MRLs) e seguros para os consumidores. No entanto, os níveis detectados podem causar mortalidade na fauna de insetos. O uso de inseticidas proibidos é um dos principais fatores responsáveis pelo declínio das populações de importantes insetos polinizadores, incluindo as abelhas.

Honey as a bioindicator of environmental organochlorine insecticides contamination

Abstract Honey is a suitable matrix for the evaluation of environmental contaminants including organochlorine insecticides. The present study was conducted to evaluate residues of fifteen organochlorine insecticides in honey samples of unifloral and multifloral origins from Dir, Pakistan. Honey samples (5 g each) were extracted with GC grade organic solvents and then subjected to Rotary Evaporator till dryness. The extracts were then mixed with n-Hexane (5 ml) and purified through Column Chromatography. Purified extracts (1l each) were processed through Gas Chromatograph coupled with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD) for identification and quantification of the insecticides. Of the 15 insecticides tested, 46.7% were detected while 53.3% were not detected in the honey samples. Heptachlor was the most prevalent insecticide with a mean level of 0.0018 mg/kg detected in 80% of the samples followed by -HCH with a mean level of 0.0016 mg/kg detected in 71.4% of the honey samples. Honey samples from Acacia modesta Wall. were 100% positive for Heptachlor with a mean level of 0.0048 mg/kg followed by -HCH with a mean level of 0.003 mg/kg and frequency of 83.3%. Minimum levels of the tested insecticides were detected in the unifloral honey from Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Methoxychlor, Endosulfan, Endrin and metabolites of DDT were not detected in the studied honey samples. Some of the tested insecticides are banned in Pakistan but are still detected in honey samples indicating their use in the study area. The detected levels of all insecticides were below the Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) and safe for consumers. However, the levels detected can cause mortality in insect fauna. The use of banned insecticides is one of the main factors responsible for the declining populations of important insect pollinators including honeybees.

Resumo O mel é uma matriz adequada para a avaliação de contaminantes ambientais, incluindo inseticidas organoclorados. O presente estudo foi conduzido para avaliar resíduos de 15 inseticidas organoclorados em amostras de mel de origem unifloral e multifloral de Dir, Paquistão. Amostras de mel (5 g cada) foram extraídas com solventes orgânicos de grau GC e, em seguida, submetidas ao evaporador rotativo até a secura. Os extratos foram então misturados com n-hexano (5 ml) e purificados por cromatografia em coluna. Os extratos purificados (1l cada) foram processados através de cromatógrafo gasoso acoplado a detector de captura de elétrons (GC-ECD) para identificação e quantificação dos inseticidas. Dos 15 inseticidas testados, 46,7% foram detectados enquanto 53,3% não foram detectados nas amostras de mel. O heptacloro foi o inseticida mais prevalente com um nível médio de 0,0018 mg / kg detectado em 80% das amostras, seguido por -HCH com um nível médio de 0,0016 mg / kg detectado em 71,4% das amostras de mel. Amostras de mel da parede de Acacia modesta foram 100% positivos para heptacloro com um nível médio de 0,0048 mg / kg seguido por -HCH com um nível médio de 0,003 mg / kg e frequência de 83,3%. Níveis mínimos dos inseticidas testados foram detectados no mel unifloral de Ziziphus jujuba da usina. Metoxicloro, Endosulfan, Endrin e metabólitos do DDT não foram detectados nas amostras de mel estudadas. Alguns dos inseticidas testados são proibidos no Paquistão, mas ainda são detectados em amostras de mel, indicando seu uso na área de estudo. Os níveis detectados de todos os inseticidas estavam abaixo dos Níveis Máximos de Resíduos (MRLs) e seguros para os consumidores. No entanto, os níveis detectados podem causar mortalidade na fauna de insetos. O uso de inseticidas proibidos é um dos principais fatores responsáveis pelo declínio das populações de importantes insetos polinizadores, incluindo as abelhas.

Honey as a bioindicator of environmental organochlorine insecticides contamination / Mel como bioindicador de contaminação ambiental de inseticidas organoclorados

Abstract Honey is a suitable matrix for the evaluation of environmental contaminants including organochlorine insecticides. The present study was conducted to evaluate residues of fifteen organochlorine insecticides in honey samples of unifloral and multifloral origins from Dir, Pakistan. Honey samples (5 g each) were extracted with GC grade organic solvents and then subjected to Rotary Evaporator till dryness. The extracts were then mixed with n-Hexane (5 ml) and purified through Column Chromatography. Purified extracts (1μl each) were processed through Gas Chromatograph coupled with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD) for identification and quantification of the insecticides. Of the 15 insecticides tested, 46.7% were detected while 53.3% were not detected in the honey samples. Heptachlor was the most prevalent insecticide with a mean level of 0.0018 mg/kg detected in 80% of the samples followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.0016 mg/kg detected in 71.4% of the honey samples. Honey samples from Acacia modesta Wall. were 100% positive for Heptachlor with a mean level of 0.0048 mg/kg followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.003 mg/kg and frequency of 83.3%. Minimum levels of the tested insecticides were detected in the unifloral honey from Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Methoxychlor, Endosulfan, Endrin and metabolites of DDT were not detected in the studied honey samples. Some of the tested insecticides are banned in Pakistan but are still detected in honey samples indicating their use in the study area. The detected levels of all insecticides were below the Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) and safe for consumers. However, the levels detected can cause mortality in insect fauna. The use of banned insecticides is one of the main factors responsible for the declining populations of important insect pollinators including honeybees.

Resumo O mel é uma matriz adequada para a avaliação de contaminantes ambientais, incluindo inseticidas organoclorados. O presente estudo foi conduzido para avaliar resíduos de 15 inseticidas organoclorados em amostras de mel de origem unifloral e multifloral de Dir, Paquistão. Amostras de mel (5 g cada) foram extraídas com solventes orgânicos de grau GC e, em seguida, submetidas ao evaporador rotativo até a secura. Os extratos foram então misturados com n-hexano (5 ml) e purificados por cromatografia em coluna. Os extratos purificados (1μl cada) foram processados através de cromatógrafo gasoso acoplado a detector de captura de elétrons (GC-ECD) para identificação e quantificação dos inseticidas. Dos 15 inseticidas testados, 46,7% foram detectados enquanto 53,3% não foram detectados nas amostras de mel. O heptacloro foi o inseticida mais prevalente com um nível médio de 0,0018 mg / kg detectado em 80% das amostras, seguido por β-HCH com um nível médio de 0,0016 mg / kg detectado em 71,4% das amostras de mel. Amostras de mel da parede de Acacia modesta foram 100% positivos para heptacloro com um nível médio de 0,0048 mg / kg seguido por β-HCH com um nível médio de 0,003 mg / kg e frequência de 83,3%. Níveis mínimos dos inseticidas testados foram detectados no mel unifloral de Ziziphus jujuba da usina. Metoxicloro, Endosulfan, Endrin e metabólitos do DDT não foram detectados nas amostras de mel estudadas. Alguns dos inseticidas testados são proibidos no Paquistão, mas ainda são detectados em amostras de mel, indicando seu uso na área de estudo. Os níveis detectados de todos os inseticidas estavam abaixo dos Níveis Máximos de Resíduos (MRLs) e seguros para os consumidores. No entanto, os níveis detectados podem causar mortalidade na fauna de insetos. O uso de inseticidas proibidos é um dos principais fatores responsáveis pelo declínio das populações de importantes insetos polinizadores, incluindo as abelhas.

Honey as a bioindicator of environmental organochlorine insecticides contamination / Mel como bioindicador de contaminação ambiental de inseticidas organoclorados

Honey is a suitable matrix for the evaluation of environmental contaminants including organochlorine insecticides. The present study was conducted to evaluate residues of fifteen organochlorine insecticides in honey samples of unifloral and multifloral origins from Dir, Pakistan. Honey samples (5 g each) were extracted with GC grade organic solvents and then subjected to Rotary Evaporator till dryness. The extracts were then mixed with n-Hexane (5 ml) and purified through Column Chromatography. Purified extracts (1μl each) were processed through Gas Chromatograph coupled with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD) for identification and quantification of the insecticides. Of the 15 insecticides tested, 46.7% were detected while 53.3% were not detected in the honey samples. Heptachlor was the most prevalent insecticide with a mean level of 0.0018 mg/kg detected in 80% of the samples followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.0016 mg/kg detected in 71.4% of the honey samples. Honey samples from Acacia modesta Wall. were 100% positive for Heptachlor with a mean level of 0.0048 mg/kg followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.003 mg/kg and frequency of 83.3%. Minimum levels of the tested insecticides were detected in the unifloral honey from Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Methoxychlor, Endosulfan, Endrin and metabolites of DDT were not detected in the studied honey samples. Some of the tested insecticides are banned in Pakistan but are still detected in honey samples indicating their use in the study area. The detected levels of all insecticides were below the Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) and safe for consumers. However, the levels detected can cause mortality in insect fauna. The use of banned insecticides is one of the main factors responsible for the declining populations of important insect pollinators including honeybees.(AU)

O mel é uma matriz adequada para a avaliação de contaminantes ambientais, incluindo inseticidas organoclorados. O presente estudo foi conduzido para avaliar resíduos de 15 inseticidas organoclorados em amostras de mel de origem unifloral e multifloral de Dir, Paquistão. Amostras de mel (5 g cada) foram extraídas com solventes orgânicos de grau GC e, em seguida, submetidas ao evaporador rotativo até a secura. Os extratos foram então misturados com n-hexano (5 ml) e purificados por cromatografia em coluna. Os extratos purificados (1μl cada) foram processados através de cromatógrafo gasoso acoplado a detector de captura de elétrons (GC-ECD) para identificação e quantificação dos inseticidas. Dos 15 inseticidas testados, 46,7% foram detectados enquanto 53,3% não foram detectados nas amostras de mel. O heptacloro foi o inseticida mais prevalente com um nível médio de 0,0018 mg / kg detectado em 80% das amostras, seguido por β-HCH com um nível médio de 0,0016 mg / kg detectado em 71,4% das amostras de mel. Amostras de mel da parede de Acacia modesta foram 100% positivos para heptacloro com um nível médio de 0,0048 mg / kg seguido por β-HCH com um nível médio de 0,003 mg / kg e frequência de 83,3%. Níveis mínimos dos inseticidas testados foram detectados no mel unifloral de Ziziphus jujuba da usina. Metoxicloro, Endosulfan, Endrin e metabólitos do DDT não foram detectados nas amostras de mel estudadas. Alguns dos inseticidas testados são proibidos no Paquistão, mas ainda são detectados em amostras de mel, indicando seu uso na área de estudo. Os níveis detectados de todos os inseticidas estavam abaixo dos Níveis Máximos de Resíduos (MRLs) e seguros para os consumidores. No entanto, os níveis detectados podem causar mortalidade na fauna de insetos. O uso de inseticidas proibidos é um dos principais fatores responsáveis pelo declínio das populações de importantes insetos polinizadores, incluindo as abelhas.(AU)

Development of colonies of uruçu stingless bees fed a vitamin-amino acid supplement / Desenvolvimento de colônias de abelhas sem ferrão uruçu alimentadas com o suplemento aminoácido vitamínico

This study proposes to investigate the influence of a vitamin-amino acid supplement on the weight of colonies of uruçu stingless bees (Melipona scutellaris). The experiment was carried out with 24 colonies and three treatments, which consisted of a solution of different proportions of supplement (0, 3, and 5 mL) diluted in syrup (water and sugar). Although this supplement is effective and indicated for other species of domestic animals, analysis of variance with repeated measures over time did not reveal a significant effect (P > 0.05) of its dose on the weight of the hives, showing that the supply of the vitamin-amino acid supplement does not meet the nutritional requirements of the colony. The use of this product did not have a positive effect on the development of the uruçu bee colonies, so it should not be employed as a major source of amino acids and vitamins in the diet of bees. Beekeepers are suggested to provide uruçu bees with an abundant diversity of plants so that they have access to different types of pollen as a source of nutrients.(AU)

O objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar a influência do suplemento aminoácido vitamínico no peso de colônias de abelhas sem ferrão Uruçu (Melipona scutellaris). O experimento foi realizado com 24 colônias e três tratamentos, consistindo na oferta de uma solução de xarope (água e açúcar) diluído com diferentes proporções de 0, 3 e 5 mL de suplemento. Embora este suplemento seja eficaz e indicado para outras espécies animais de domésticos, a análise de variância com medida repetida no tempo não apresentou efeito significativo (P> 0,05) do nível desse suplemento sobre o peso das colmeias, mostrando que a oferta do suplemento aminoácido vitamínico, não supre a necessidade nutricional para a colônia. Conclui-se que o uso desse produto não surtiu efeito positivo no desenvolvimento de colônias de abelhas Uruçu (Melipona scutellaris), indicando que não deveria ser utilizado como fonte majoritária de aminoácido e de vitaminas na alimentação das abelhas. Sugere-se que os meliponicultores proporcionem às abelhas Uruçu (Melipona scutellaris) uma abundante diversidade de plantas a fim de que tenham acesso a diferentes tipos de pólen como fonte de nutrientes.(AU)

The first cases of gynandromorphism in oil-collecting bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae: Centridini, Tapinotaspidini)

Here we provide descriptions of gynandromorphs of two species oil-collecting bees: Lophopedia nigrispinis and Epicharis iheringii, both with partial bilateral phenotypic asymmetry. The bees have a female phenotype predominantly on mesosoma and metasoma. The specimen of L. nigrispinis has distinct characteristics on legs, suggesting a mosaic pattern of gynandromorphism. The pollen and oil loads on legs suggest that the bee was foraging normally. The gynander specimen of E. iheringii has mostly a female phenotype, except for head, with right half female type and left half male type. The specimen of L. nigrispinis was collected foraging on flowers of Bidens sp. at Parque Nacional Iguazú, Argentina with loads of pollen on legs suggesting it was reproductive and was provisioning a nest. The specimen of Epicharis iheriingi has no evidence of any oil or pollen collection, despite its mostly female phenotype.

The first cases of gynandromorphism in oil-collecting bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae: Centridini, Tapinotaspidini)

Here we provide descriptions of gynandromorphs of two species oil-collecting bees: Lophopedia nigrispinis and Epicharis iheringii, both with partial bilateral phenotypic asymmetry. The bees have a female phenotype predominantly on mesosoma and metasoma. The specimen of L. nigrispinis has distinct characteristics on legs, suggesting a mosaic pattern of gynandromorphism. The pollen and oil loads on legs suggest that the bee was foraging normally. The gynander specimen of E. iheringii has mostly a female phenotype, except for head, with right half female type and left half male type. The specimen of L. nigrispinis was collected foraging on flowers of Bidens sp. at Parque Nacional Iguazú, Argentina with loads of pollen on legs suggesting it was reproductive and was provisioning a nest. The specimen of Epicharis iheriingi has no evidence of any oil or pollen collection, despite its mostly female phenotype.(AU)

Native bee fauna of tomato crops: a comparison of active sampling and pan trapping methods

The tomato is widely cultivated throughout the world and requires pollination by wild or managed bees to realize its full-potential fruit production. Two different sampling methods (pan trapping and active sampling) were employed in nine different properties from June to September of 2011 to investigate the richness and abundance of native bee species present in tomato crops of Center-West Brazil. A total of 465 individuals of 44 species were collected, with the composition of sampled bee species differing between the methods used. Twenty-two species were exclusively captured in pan traps, 13 others through active sampling and nine by both methods. Most of the sampled bee species can be considered effective pollinators of the tomato because they can perform buzz-pollination. By vibration, these bees can liberate pollen from anthers into the air or onto their own bodies and the stigmas of the same flower because the stigmas of the studied tomato variety are within the anther cone. Both methods exclusively sampled some species of buzz-pollinating bees, however, pan-trapping captured buzzing and non-buzzing visitors indiscriminately while active sampling captured more buzzing bees. Pan-trapping and active sampling appear to complement each other, and so the use of only one or the other would not provide a full understanding of the species richness of tomato pollinators in the field.(AU)

O tomate é amplamente cultivado em todo o mundo e requer polinização por abelhas nativas ou manejadas para realizar o pleno potencial de produção dos frutos. Para investigar a riqueza e abundância de espécies de abelhas nativas em plantações de tomate do Centro-Oeste do Brasil, dois métodos de amostragem (armadilhas pan-trap e amostragem ativa) foram utilizados em nove propriedades de junho a setembro de 2011. Um total de 465 indivíduos de 44 espécies foi coletado. A composição das espécies de abelhas amostradas diferiu dependendo do método utilizado. Vinte e duas espécies foram capturadas exclusivamente em armadilhas, 13 outras por meio de amostragem ativa e nove por ambos os métodos. A maioria das espécies de abelhas capturadas neste estudo pode ser considerada polinizadores eficazes do tomate, porque elas podem executar a polinização por vibração. Vibrando seus músculos torácicos, essas abelhas podem liberar o pólen das anteras para seus próprios corpos e para os estigmas da mesma flor, uma vez que eles estão dentro do cone de anteras da variedade do tomate estudado. Ambos os métodos amostraram espécies exclusivas de abelhas vibradoras. No entanto, as armadilhas capturaram abelhas vibradoras e não vibradoras indiscriminadamente e o método ativo amostrou principalmente a abelha vibradora. As coletas utilizando armadilhas e amostragens ativas foram complementares. O uso de apenas um método de amostragem não fornece um entendimento completo da riqueza de espécies de polinizadores de tomate no campo.(AU)

Native bee fauna of tomato crops: a comparison of active sampling and pan trapping methods

The tomato is widely cultivated throughout the world and requires pollination by wild or managed bees to realize its full-potential fruit production. Two different sampling methods (pan trapping and active sampling) were employed in nine different properties from June to September of 2011 to investigate the richness and abundance of native bee species present in tomato crops of Center-West Brazil. A total of 465 individuals of 44 species were collected, with the composition of sampled bee species differing between the methods used. Twenty-two species were exclusively captured in pan traps, 13 others through active sampling and nine by both methods. Most of the sampled bee species can be considered effective pollinators of the tomato because they can perform buzz-pollination. By vibration, these bees can liberate pollen from anthers into the air or onto their own bodies and the stigmas of the same flower because the stigmas of the studied tomato variety are within the anther cone. Both methods exclusively sampled some species of buzz-pollinating bees, however, pan-trapping captured buzzing and non-buzzing visitors indiscriminately while active sampling captured more buzzing bees. Pan-trapping and active sampling appear to complement each other, and so the use of only one or the other would not provide a full understanding of the species richness of tomato pollinators in the field.

O tomate é amplamente cultivado em todo o mundo e requer polinização por abelhas nativas ou manejadas para realizar o pleno potencial de produção dos frutos. Para investigar a riqueza e abundância de espécies de abelhas nativas em plantações de tomate do Centro-Oeste do Brasil, dois métodos de amostragem (armadilhas pan-trap e amostragem ativa) foram utilizados em nove propriedades de junho a setembro de 2011. Um total de 465 indivíduos de 44 espécies foi coletado. A composição das espécies de abelhas amostradas diferiu dependendo do método utilizado. Vinte e duas espécies foram capturadas exclusivamente em armadilhas, 13 outras por meio de amostragem ativa e nove por ambos os métodos. A maioria das espécies de abelhas capturadas neste estudo pode ser considerada polinizadores eficazes do tomate, porque elas podem executar a polinização por vibração. Vibrando seus músculos torácicos, essas abelhas podem liberar o pólen das anteras para seus próprios corpos e para os estigmas da mesma flor, uma vez que eles estão dentro do cone de anteras da variedade do tomate estudado. Ambos os métodos amostraram espécies exclusivas de abelhas vibradoras. No entanto, as armadilhas capturaram abelhas vibradoras e não vibradoras indiscriminadamente e o método ativo amostrou principalmente a abelha vibradora. As coletas utilizando armadilhas e amostragens ativas foram complementares. O uso de apenas um método de amostragem não fornece um entendimento completo da riqueza de espécies de polinizadores de tomate no campo.

Native bee fauna of tomato crops: a comparison of active sampling and pan trapping methods

ABSTRACT The tomato is widely cultivated throughout the world and requires pollination by wild or managed bees to realize its full-potential fruit production. Two different sampling methods (pan trapping and active sampling) were employed in nine different properties from June to September of 2011 to investigate the richness and abundance of native bee species present in tomato crops of Center-West Brazil. A total of 465 individuals of 44 species were collected, with the composition of sampled bee species differing between the methods used. Twenty-two species were exclusively captured in pan traps, 13 others through active sampling and nine by both methods. Most of the sampled bee species can be considered effective pollinators of the tomato because they can perform buzz-pollination. By vibration, these bees can liberate pollen from anthers into the air or onto their own bodies and the stigmas of the same flower because the stigmas of the studied tomato variety are within the anther cone. Both methods exclusively sampled some species of buzz-pollinating bees, however, pan-trapping captured buzzing and non-buzzing visitors indiscriminately while active sampling captured more buzzing bees. Pan-trapping and active sampling appear to complement each other, and so the use of only one or the other would not provide a full understanding of the species richness of tomato pollinators in the field.

RESUMO O tomate é amplamente cultivado em todo o mundo e requer polinização por abelhas nativas ou manejadas para realizar o pleno potencial de produção dos frutos. Para investigar a riqueza e abundância de espécies de abelhas nativas em plantações de tomate do Centro-Oeste do Brasil, dois métodos de amostragem (armadilhas pan-trap e amostragem ativa) foram utilizados em nove propriedades de junho a setembro de 2011. Um total de 465 indivíduos de 44 espécies foi coletado. A composição das espécies de abelhas amostradas diferiu dependendo do método utilizado. Vinte e duas espécies foram capturadas exclusivamente em armadilhas, 13 outras por meio de amostragem ativa e nove por ambos os métodos. A maioria das espécies de abelhas capturadas neste estudo pode ser considerada polinizadores eficazes do tomate, porque elas podem executar a polinização por vibração. Vibrando seus músculos torácicos, essas abelhas podem liberar o pólen das anteras para seus próprios corpos e para os estigmas da mesma flor, uma vez que eles estão dentro do cone de anteras da variedade do tomate estudado. Ambos os métodos amostraram espécies exclusivas de abelhas vibradoras. No entanto, as armadilhas capturaram abelhas vibradoras e não vibradoras indiscriminadamente e o método ativo amostrou principalmente a abelha vibradora. As coletas utilizando armadilhas e amostragens ativas foram complementares. O uso de apenas um método de amostragem não fornece um entendimento completo da riqueza de espécies de polinizadores de tomate no campo.

Biochemical and physical kernel properties of a standard maize hybrid in different TopCross Blends

A pilot experiment was undertaken in order to examine high oil populations of maize (Zea mays L.) to be used as pollinators in TopCross blends with commercial ZP341 standard hybrid. Five high oil populations (HOPs) from the Maize Research Institute (MRI) gene bank were chosen for this research, according to their high grain oil content, synchrony between silking of ZP341 and anthesis of the populations and good agronomic performances in 2012. Selfing of ZP341 and HOPs, as well as crosses of ZP341 cmsS sterile × HOPs were carried out in 2013. Oil content, fatty acid composition, protein and tryptophan content, and physical characteristics of the obtained kernels were measured. Four HOPs showed significant positive influence on the oil content in the TopCrosses (TC), 16.85 g kg1 on average. Oleic acid, which is the principal monounsaturated fatty acid, was significantly lower in all HOPs and all TCs, while selfed ZP341 had almost twice the average value typical for standard maize. However, this decrease in TCs was in a narrow range from 1 % (in TC-3) to 5 % (in TC-4) and the oleic content of TCs was on average higher by 60 % compared to the typical standard maize. Different favorable and unfavorable significant changes were detected in fatty acid compositions, protein and tryptophan contents and physical kernel properties for each potential TC combination. Results indicate differences in gene effects present in different TC combinations and underscore the need to examine each potential TC blend by conducting similar simple experiments.

Biochemical and physical kernel properties of a standard maize hybrid in different TopCross Blends

A pilot experiment was undertaken in order to examine high oil populations of maize (Zea mays L.) to be used as pollinators in TopCross blends with commercial ZP341 standard hybrid. Five high oil populations (HOPs) from the Maize Research Institute (MRI) gene bank were chosen for this research, according to their high grain oil content, synchrony between silking of ZP341 and anthesis of the populations and good agronomic performances in 2012. Selfing of ZP341 and HOPs, as well as crosses of ZP341 cmsS sterile × HOPs were carried out in 2013. Oil content, fatty acid composition, protein and tryptophan content, and physical characteristics of the obtained kernels were measured. Four HOPs showed significant positive influence on the oil content in the TopCrosses (TC), 16.85 g kg1 on average. Oleic acid, which is the principal monounsaturated fatty acid, was significantly lower in all HOPs and all TCs, while selfed ZP341 had almost twice the average value typical for standard maize. However, this decrease in TCs was in a narrow range from 1 % (in TC-3) to 5 % (in TC-4) and the oleic content of TCs was on average higher by 60 % compared to the typical standard maize. Different favorable and unfavorable significant changes were detected in fatty acid compositions, protein and tryptophan contents and physical kernel properties for each potential TC combination. Results indicate differences in gene effects present in different TC combinations and underscore the need to examine each potential TC blend by conducting similar simple experiments.(AU)

Floral Biology and pollination requirements of sesame (Sesamum indicum L) / Biologia floral e exigências de polinização do gergelim (Sesamum indicum L)

This study aimed to investigate the floral biology and pollination requirements of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), cultivar CNPA G2. The study was carried out at Barbalha, State of Ceará, and consisted of two phases: floral biology and pollination requirements. Flowers were observed as for time of anthesis, lifespan and stigma receptivity, and were applied the following pollination treatments: open pollination, hand cross-pollination, hand self-pollination, pollination restricted with tulle bags and pollination restricted with paper bags. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were detected between treatments for the number of fruits harvested 30 days after pollination. It was shown that the sesame plant presents a mixed-pollination system, because it can produce fruit whatever the type of pollination tested. Flowers are able to autopollinate and do not depend on external agents. Pollinations restricted with paper and tulle bags produced fruit with greater number of heavier seeds. It is concluded that sesame crop is able to autopollinate and benefit from both self-pollination and cross-pollination.

O trabalho objetivou investigar a biologia floral e as exigências de polinização do gergelim (Sesamum indicum L.), cultivar CNPA G2. O estudo foi conduzido em Barbalha, Estado do Ceará e constou de duas fases: biologia floral e exigências de polinização. As flores foram observadas quanto ao horário de abertura, tempo de vida e receptividade de estigma, e aplicaram-se os seguintes tratamentos de polinização: polinização livre, cruzada manual, autopolinização manual, restrita com saco de filó e restrita com saco de papel. Houve diferença significativa (p < 0,05) entre os tratamentos no número de frutos colhidos 30 dias após as polinizações. Foi demonstrado que o gergelim é uma planta de polinização mista, pois pode produzir frutos sob qualquer um dos tipos de polinização testados. Suas flores são capazes de se autopolinizar e não dependem de agentes externos. As polinizações restritas com papel e com filó produziram os frutos com sementes mais pesadas e uma maior quantidade delas dentro do fruto. Conclui-se que a cultura do gergelim é capaz de se autopolinizar e beneficia-se tanto da autopolinização quanto da polinização cruzada.

Floral Biology and pollination requirements of sesame (Sesamum indicum L) / Biologia floral e exigências de polinização do gergelim (Sesamum indicum L)

This study aimed to investigate the floral biology and pollination requirements of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), cultivar CNPA G2. The study was carried out at Barbalha, State of Ceará, and consisted of two phases: floral biology and pollination requirements. Flowers were observed as for time of anthesis, lifespan and stigma receptivity, and were applied the following pollination treatments: open pollination, hand cross-pollination, hand self-pollination, pollination restricted with tulle bags and pollination restricted with paper bags. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were detected between treatments for the number of fruits harvested 30 days after pollination. It was shown that the sesame plant presents a mixed-pollination system, because it can produce fruit whatever the type of pollination tested. Flowers are able to autopollinate and do not depend on external agents. Pollinations restricted with paper and tulle bags produced fruit with greater number of heavier seeds. It is concluded that sesame crop is able to autopollinate and benefit from both self-pollination and cross-pollination.(AU)

O trabalho objetivou investigar a biologia floral e as exigências de polinização do gergelim (Sesamum indicum L.), cultivar CNPA G2. O estudo foi conduzido em Barbalha, Estado do Ceará e constou de duas fases: biologia floral e exigências de polinização. As flores foram observadas quanto ao horário de abertura, tempo de vida e receptividade de estigma, e aplicaram-se os seguintes tratamentos de polinização: polinização livre, cruzada manual, autopolinização manual, restrita com saco de filó e restrita com saco de papel. Houve diferença significativa (p < 0,05) entre os tratamentos no número de frutos colhidos 30 dias após as polinizações. Foi demonstrado que o gergelim é uma planta de polinização mista, pois pode produzir frutos sob qualquer um dos tipos de polinização testados. Suas flores são capazes de se autopolinizar e não dependem de agentes externos. As polinizações restritas com papel e com filó produziram os frutos com sementes mais pesadas e uma maior quantidade delas dentro do fruto. Conclui-se que a cultura do gergelim é capaz de se autopolinizar e beneficia-se tanto da autopolinização quanto da polinização cruzada.(AU)

Changes in wild bee fauna of a grassland in Brazil reveal negative effects associated with growing urbanization during the last 40 years

Bee fauna and associated flora from a grassland site in Brazil, surveyed 40 and 20 years ago, were newly surveyed with comparable methodology to evaluate changes in the bee fauna of this site, considering that human population and urbanization has exponentially increased in the last 40 years. In general, bee species richness has declined in 22%, as well as their abundance. Some of the previously abundant species are now absent, including Bombus bellicosus Smith, 1879, Gaesischia fulgurans (Holmberg, 1903) and Thectochlora basiatra (Strand, 1910). No particular trend of differential decrease among either taxonomic or functional groups was observed, except for a minor increase in the proportion of oligolectic species and a 50% reduction in the number of large species. The first two surveys were more similar to each other in species richness per bee genus, while the two most recent grouped together based on measures of anthropogenic impact. Furthermore, the number of plant species visited by bees increased, with a pronounced increase in ruderal and exotic species. Crop cultivation, competition with honeybees and climate changes may all be related to bee decline. Nevertheless, the effects of urbanization, in particular intense land occupation and few preserved natural areas can be pointed as the main causes of species decline. Due to continuing increase in human population, increased erosion in diversity is expected. Habitat protection is an additional challenge to bee conservation in the region, with no local conservation units set aside for grasslands. State and municipal agencies should urgently consider the establishment of reserves for the few remaining patches of natural grasslands.

Changes in wild bee fauna of a grassland in Brazil reveal negative effects associated with growing urbanization during the last 40 years

Bee fauna and associated flora from a grassland site in Brazil, surveyed 40 and 20 years ago, were newly surveyed with comparable methodology to evaluate changes in the bee fauna of this site, considering that human population and urbanization has exponentially increased in the last 40 years. In general, bee species richness has declined in 22%, as well as their abundance. Some of the previously abundant species are now absent, including Bombus bellicosus Smith, 1879, Gaesischia fulgurans (Holmberg, 1903) and Thectochlora basiatra (Strand, 1910). No particular trend of differential decrease among either taxonomic or functional groups was observed, except for a minor increase in the proportion of oligolectic species and a 50% reduction in the number of large species. The first two surveys were more similar to each other in species richness per bee genus, while the two most recent grouped together based on measures of anthropogenic impact. Furthermore, the number of plant species visited by bees increased, with a pronounced increase in ruderal and exotic species. Crop cultivation, competition with honeybees and climate changes may all be related to bee decline. Nevertheless, the effects of urbanization, in particular intense land occupation and few preserved natural areas can be pointed as the main causes of species decline. Due to continuing increase in human population, increased erosion in diversity is expected. Habitat protection is an additional challenge to bee conservation in the region, with no local conservation units set aside for grasslands. State and municipal agencies should urgently consider the establishment of reserves for the few remaining patches of natural grasslands.

Changes in wild bee fauna of a grassland in Brazil reveal negative effects associated with growing urbanization during the last 40 years

Bee fauna and associated flora from a grassland site in Brazil, surveyed 40 and 20 years ago, were newly surveyed with comparable methodology to evaluate changes in the bee fauna of this site, considering that human population and urbanization has exponentially increased in the last 40 years. In general, bee species richness has declined in 22%, as well as their abundance. Some of the previously abundant species are now absent, including Bombus bellicosus Smith, 1879, Gaesischia fulgurans (Holmberg, 1903) and Thectochlora basiatra (Strand, 1910). No particular trend of differential decrease among either taxonomic or functional groups was observed, except for a minor increase in the proportion of oligolectic species and a 50% reduction in the number of large species. The first two surveys were more similar to each other in species richness per bee genus, while the two most recent grouped together based on measures of anthropogenic impact. Furthermore, the number of plant species visited by bees increased, with a pronounced increase in ruderal and exotic species. Crop cultivation, competition with honeybees and climate changes may all be related to bee decline. Nevertheless, the effects of urbanization, in particular intense land occupation and few preserved natural areas can be pointed as the main causes of species decline. Due to continuing increase in human population, increased erosion in diversity is expected. Habitat protection is an additional challenge to bee conservation in the region, with no local conservation units set aside for grasslands. State and municipal agencies should urgently consider the establishment of reserves for the few remaining patches of natural grasslands.(AU)

Simultaneous pollinator occurence (Hymenoptera, Agaoninae) in a threatened species: Ficus mexiae Standley (Moraceae) / Ocorrência simultânea de polinizadores (Hymenoptera, Agaoninae) em uma espécie ameaçada: Ficus mexiae Standley (Moraceae)

In Brazil, Ficus mexiae is classified as Vulnerable under IUCN criteria, and to date there is only one report on pollinator activity for this species. Is not unusual to find cases where more than one species of wasp simultaneously occurs on and pollinates the same fig. In this study we present evidence that two Pegoscapus wasp species contribute to the pollination of F. mexiae and relationship between pollinators maybe competitive. These results indicate that the F. mexiae population represent an important element in the complex dynamics of maintaining diversity in neotropical Ficus spp.(AU)

No Brasil, Ficus mexiae é classificada como uma espécie vulnerável sob os critérios da IUCN, e até agora não há um único relatório sobre a atividade dos polinizadores desta espécie. Não é raro encontrar casos em que mais de uma espécie de vespa, simultaneamente, ocorre e poliniza o mesmo figo. Neste estudo, apresentamos evidências de que duas espécies de vespas Pegoscapus contribuem para a polinização de F. mexiae, possivelmente em uma relação competitiva. Estes resultados indicam que a população F. mexiae representa um elemento importante na dinâmica complexa de manutenção da diversidade de Ficus spp. neotropicais.(AU)

Interactions between carpenter bees and orchid bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in flowers of Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae) / Interações entre abelhas carpinteiras e abelhas das orquídeas (Hymenoptera: Apidae) em flores de Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae)

Competition between two species of bees for the same type of floral resource may generate antagonistic behavior between them, especially in cultivated areas where food resources are limited, seasonally and locally. In this study, was tested the hypothesis of antagonism between two solitary bee species of the family Apidae, Eulaema mocsaryi (Euglossini) and Xylocopa frontalis (Xylocopini), visiting the Brazil nut flowers (Bertholletia excelsa: Lecythidaceae) in a central Amazonia agricultural area. The visitation time was analyzed to detect the possible temporal overlap in the foraging of these bees. Furthermore, was analyzed their interspecific interactions for manipulating flower species visited by an opponent species, as well as attempts to attack this opponent. The individuals of Xylocopa frontalis visited the Brazil nut flowers before Eulaema mocsaryi, although the peak visitation of both did not presented significant differences. Neither of the species manipulated flowers recently visited by opponent species, and there were practically no antagonistic interactions between them. Thus, X. frontalis and E. mocsaryi shared the same food source in the flowers of B. excelsa due to differences in their time of visits and non-aggressive way of interacting with the opponent. This result has important implications for pollinating the Brazil nut, and a possible management of X. frontalis and E. mocsaryi, since these two were the most abundant pollinators in the studied locality.

A competição entre duas espécies de abelhas por um mesmo tipo de recurso floral pode gerar comportamentos antagônicos entre elas, principalmente, dentro de áreas cultivadas, onde o recurso alimentar é limitado sazonalmente e localmente. No presente trabalho, foi testada a hipótese de antagonismo entre duas espécies de abelhas solitárias da família Apidae, Eulaema mocsaryi (Euglossini) e Xylocopa frontalis (Xylocopini) em flores da castanheira do Brasil (Bertholletia excelsa: Lecythidaceae) em uma área agrícola da Amazônia Central. O horário de visitação foi analisado a fim de se constatar a possível sobreposição temporal no forrageamento dessas abelhas. Além disso, suas interações interespecíficas de manipular flores visitadas pela espécie oponente ou tentar agredir essa espécie foram analisadas. Os indivíduos de Xylocopa frontalis visitaram as flores da castanheira antes que E. mocsaryi, embora o pico de visitação de ambas não tenha apresentado diferenças significativas. Nenhuma das duas espécies de abelhas manipulou flores recém-visitadas pela espécie oponente e praticamente não houve interações antagônicas entre elas. Desse modo, X. frontalis e E. mocsaryi compartilham a mesma fonte alimentar nas flores de B. excelsa devido às diferenças em seus horários de visitas e ao modo não agressivo de interagir com a espécie oponente. Esse resultado tem implicações importantes para a polinização da castanheira e um possível manejo de X. frontalis e E. mocsaryi, uma vez que essas duas espécies de abelhas foram os polinizadores mais abundantes na localidade estudada.