Occurrence of Escherichia Coli O157:H7 in lactating cows and dairy farm environment and the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern at Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha District, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Food-borne pathogens are the foremost causes of food-borne human illness in the world. Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli O157:H7) is one of the major food-borne pathogenic bacteria around the world. Though evidence is lacking; especially in developing countries like Ethiopia, the potential health impact of E. coli O157:H7 can be high where food production, handling and consumption is often taking place under unhygienic conditions. In Ethiopia, studies reported E. coli and E. coli O157: H7 from food of animal origin, mainly meat and milk, and also animal surfaces and feces. The objective of the present study was to investigate the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7 in raw milk and the dairy production farm environment and further assess the antimicrobial resistance pattern of the bacterium. METHODS: Samples of milk from individual lactating cows' and dairy farm environmental samples (feces, water and manure) were collected at Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha district (ATJKD) and analyzed for the presence of E. coli O157:H7. Standard microbiological techniques including culture, biochemical testing and serological test were performed to isolate and identify the bacterium. The bacterial isolates were evaluated for antimicrobial susceptibility patterns using disk diffusion method. A questionnaire was used to collect possible factors affecting E. coli O157:H7 occurrence. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 was 4.7% (19/408) (95% CI: 2.6; 6.7). Out of 19 E. coli O157:H7 isolates, 4/50, 7/154, 2/50, and 6/154 were from water, milk, manure, and feces samples, respectively. From potential risk factors considered in this study area, floor type, cleaning of pens, milking location and hand washing during the time of milking were significantly associated with the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7. The antimicrobial susceptibility pattern indicated varying degrees of resistance. All of the isolates were found to be resistant ampicillin, cephalothin, and rifampin, and 100% susceptibility was observed against the drugs: chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, nalidixic acid, kanamycin, and tetracycline. Concerning streptomycin, 63.15% of the isolates were susceptible and 36.8% showed intermediate susceptibility. CONCLUSIONS: The occurrence of multi-drug resistance E. coli O157:H7 observed both in lactating cows and in dairy farm environments can sustain a continuous transmission of the bacteria. The occurrence of multidrug-resistant E. coli o157:H7could hamper the control and prevention efforts.

Determination of the sources and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella isolated from the poultry industry in Southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ethiopia set an ambitious masterplan to increase chicken meat and egg production from 2015 to 2020. Poultry breeding, multiplication and distribution centers in the country have received executive order to import, amplify and distribute commercial chickens to end users. The biosecurity and the pathogen fauna of the centers have not been evaluated as to whether the centers could implement the mission effectively without any risk. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the biosecurity practices and the pathogen prevalence, risk factors and their antimicrobial resistance (AMR) using Salmonella as case study. METHODS: Routine farm workers of the centers were interviewed about the different management (biosecurity) practices using a checklist. Samples (n = 270) from different sources consisting of chicken's cloacal swab (n = 244), personnel hand swab (n = 9) and bedding (n = 17) were collected from three chicken multiplication centers. Standard bacteriological methods were used for the isolation of Salmonella. Disk diffusion method was used for drug sensitivity testing. RESULTS: Antimicrobials were often over prescribed without confirming the cause of ill health and without susceptibility testing. The general biosecurity and flock management practices were substandard. Salmonella was isolated from 45 (16.7%) of the 270 samples. Its prevalence was significantly (p<0.05) associated with location of the multiplication center, 27% at Bonga and 10.6% at Hawassa. Sample type was also significantly (p<0.05) affected in that it was higher in the bedding (35.3%) and personnel hand swabs (33.3%) than in the chicken cloaca (14.8%), which demonstrates the poor biosecurity and personnel hygienic practices in the centers. All of the 45 isolates (100%) exhibited resistance to kanamycin and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, nalidixic acid (97.8%), ampicillin (97.8%), cefoxitin (97.8%), streptomycin (97.8%) tetracycline (97.8%), chloramphenicol (91.3%), ciprofloxacin (31.1%), and gentamicin (0%). Alarmingly, 42 isolates (93.4%) exhibited multidrug resistance (MDR) to ≥ 8 drugs and all 45 isolates had resistance to ≥ 3 drugs. The high rate of Salmonella isolation from (i) bedding, (ii) personnel hand swabs (iii) chickens, (iv) presence of more MDR isolates, (v) coupled with poor biosecurity practices in the centers could pose a risk for spreading of pathogens and drug resistant genes to the smallholder chicken producers and the public. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the poultry breeding, multiplication and distribution centers in Ethiopia, as they stand currently, seem to be a source of pathogens and AMR isolates at least for Salmonella. Therefore, strict biosecurity, personnel safety, prudent drug use, regular monitoring and traceability of Salmonella serotypes or genotypes and AMR are recommended.

Assessment of knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of farmers about transmission of zoonotic diseases in Ada'a district, Oromia, Ethiopia.

In developing countries like Ethiopia, zoonotic diseases pose a significant health and economic burden, with high exposure of farmers to zoonotic infection given the prevailing traditional husbandry practices. A cross-sectional survey involving 388 farmers in the Ada'a district central Ethiopia was conducted to investigate their knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding the transmission of zoonotic diseases. The respondents' mean age was 41.0 ± 10.0 SD years. The majority of respondents (39.4%) were between the ages of 41 and 50, and 90.0% were married. Farmers claimed that conversations with family, colleagues, and friends were the primary sources of zoonoses information. Farmers stated that the primary sources of information on zoonotic diseases as community. They had a relatively low level (66.8%) of knowledge on zoonotic diseases and half of them (54.9%) did not have good information on zoonoses. Three-quarters (75.2%) of the farmers reported that they neither consume meat and milk nor use offal and hide/skin from sick or dead animals. Similarly, 71.1% of them stated that they do not eat meat from regularly aborting sheep/goats, and never consume raw meat and milk. Most of the respondents correctly answered that raw meat (82.7%) and raw milk (79.9%) are means of disease transmission from animals to humans. However, considerable proportions of them were unaware of zoonotic transmission of bovine tuberculosis (61.3%) and brucellosis (74.7%) transmission through raw milk intakes, and risk of taeniasis (71%) due to raw meat consumption. But, considerable proportions had never dewormed (48.7%), or tested their animals for brucellosis (82.7%) and bovine tuberculosis (83.3%), and more than three quarters (77.3%) did not used personal protective equipment when handling sick animals. Farmers who had a secondary education or above (OR = 6.8, CI = 2.4-18.0, p = 0.004), aged between 41 and 50 years (OR = 3.0, 95% CI: 1.2-7.2, p = 0.015), and those having good knowledge (OR = 2.1, CI = 1.3-3.5, p = 0.002), and positive attitude related to zoonotic diseases (OR = 7.8, CI = 4.7-12.9, p < 0.001) had better practices that reduce the risk of exposure to zoonotic infections than their counterparts. This study revealed a knowledge gaps, a low level of the desired attitude, and high-risk behavioral practices which call for awareness creation about zoonotic disease transmission.

Occurrence, molecular characterization, and antimicrobial susceptibility of sorbitol non-fermenting Escherichia coli in lake water, fish and humans in central Oromia, Ethiopia.

Contaminated lake water and fish can be sources of bacterial pathogens of public health concern, including pathogenic E. coli. Within Ethiopia, specifically, Central Oromia, raw fish consumption is a common practice. Although there are few reports on occurrence of E. coli O157 in fish destined for human consumption and children under five years, information on the transmission pathways of E. coli O157 and other sorbitol non-fermenting (SN-F) E. coli from water-to-fish-to-human, and their virulence factors and antimicrobial resistant determinants along the fish supply chain is lacking. The study aimed to investigate the occurrence, molecular characteristics, and antimicrobial susceptibility of E. coli O157 and other SN-F E. coli strains in fish, lake water and humans in central Oromia, Ethiopia. A total of 750 samples (450 fish samples, 150 water samples, 150 human stool samples) were collected from five lakes and three health facilities. The samples were processed following the standard protocol recommended by European Food Safety Authority and Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method for detection of the bacteria, and antimicrobial susceptibility tests, respectively. Molecular characterization of presumptive isolates was performed using Whole-Genome Sequencing (WGS) for serotyping, determination of virulence factors, antimicrobial resistance traits, and genetic linkage of the isolates. Overall, 3.9% (29/750) of the samples had SN-F E. coli; of which 6.7% (n = 10), 1.8% (n = 8) and 7.3% (n = 11) were retrieved from water, fish, and diarrheic human patients, respectively. The WGS confirmed that all the isolates were SN-F non-O157: H7 E. coli strains. We reported two new E. coli strains with unknown O-antigen from fish and human samples. All the strains have multiple virulence factors and one or more genes encoding for them. Genetic relatedness was observed among strains from the same sources (water, fish, and humans). Most isolates were resistant to ampicillin (100%), tetracycline (100%), cefotaxime (100%), ceftazidime (100%), meropenem (100%), nalidixic acid (93.1%) and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (79.3%). Majority of the strains were resistant to chloramphenicol (58.6%) and ciprofloxacin (48.3%), while small fraction showed resistance to azithromycin (3.45%). Isolates had an overall MDR profile of 87.5%. Majority, (62.1%; n = 18) of the strains had acquired MDR traits. Genes encoding for mutational resistance and Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) were also detected. In conclusion, our study revealed the occurrence of virulent and MDR SN-F E. coli strains in water, fish, and humans. Although no genetic relatedness was observed among strains from various sources, the genomic clustering among strains from the same sources strongly suggests the potential risk of transmission along the supply chain at the human-fish-environment interface if strict hygienic fish production is not in place. Further robust genetic study of the new strains with unknown O-antigens, and the epidemiology of SN-F E. coli is required to elucidate the molecular profile and public health implications of the pathogens.

Prevalence, risk factors, and major bacterial causes of camel mastitis in Borana Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was carried out from November 2010 up to April 2011 to estimate mastitis prevalence and associated risk factors and to assess its bacterial causes in traditionally managed camels in Borana Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Thus, 348 lactating camels were examined clinically, and subclinical cases were checked with California mastitis test (CMT). The overall prevalence of mastitis was 44.8 % (156/348), comprising clinical (19, 5.4 %) and subclinical (137, 39.4 %) cases. The quarter level prevalence of mastitis was 24.0 % (334/1,392). Of the total 1,392 examined teats, 30 were blind, and hence, from the 1,362 non-blind CMT-examined teats, 22.3 % (304/1,362) were CMT positive. Of the 304 CMT-positive samples, 264 were culture positive (197 Gram-positive, 41 Gram-negative, and 26 mixed isolates), and 40 were culture negative. The prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus was found to be the highest at both the animal (12.8 %, 39/304) and quarter level (2.9 %, 39/1,362). Regression analysis revealed higher likelihood of mastitis occurrence among camels from Dharito (OR = 3.4, 95 % confidence interval (CI) = 1.8, 6.4), Gagna (OR = 3.4, 95 % CI = 1.8, 6.5), and Haro Bake (OR = 2.6, 95 % CI = 1.3, 5.1) than camels from Surupha. Likewise, there was higher chance of mastitis occurrence among camels at the early lactation stage (OR = 2.3, 95 % CI = 1.1, 4.6) and camels with udder/teat lesions (OR = 13.7, 95 % CI = 1.7, 109.4) than among camels at late lactation stage and camels with healthy udder/teats, respectively. In conclusion, this study reveals the current status of camel mastitis in Southern Ethiopia.

Assessment of Food Safety Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices among Meat Handlers in Bishoftu City, Ethiopia.

Meat handlers play a critical role in food safety by preventing contamination of food for human consumption. A cross-sectional survey was undertaken with 391 meat handlers working in abattoirs and retail meat stores in Bishoftu, Ethiopia, to investigate their food safety knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP). Data were collected in interviews using a semistructured questionnaire adapted from previous research. An overall score for each topic area was calculated based on the responses to individual questions. Logistic regression was used to assess the independent associations between sociodemographic characteristics and good knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Almost all meat handlers were males (97.2%), and more than half (51.9%) had primary-level education. Most (72.4%) meat handlers had a good knowledge level with a median score of 16 out of 21 (interquartile range [IQR] = 6). Similarly, most (94.6%) meat handlers had a positive attitude toward food safety with a median score 18 out of 20 (IQR = 1). However, most (83.7%) meat handlers had poor food safety practices with median score of 11 out of 20 (IQR = 3). In multivariable models, good knowledge was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with male gender and older age; positive attitudes were associated with lower educational attainment and good knowledge; and good practices were associated with working in an abattoir and having received training on food safety. Regular hands-on training and enforcement of general and personal hygiene is recommended.

Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Strains Thrive in Dairy and Beef Production, Processing, and Supply Lines in Five Geographical Areas in Ethiopia.

Livestock, farms, abattoirs, and food supply systems can become the source of foodborne pathogens, including S. aureus, in the absence of monitoring, general hygienic practices, and control. Studies are scarce on reservoirs (hiding places) and routes of entry of S. aureus into the food supply chain in Ethiopia. To fill these gaps, we evaluated the role of cows (milk), meat, equipment, and food handlers on the abundance and AMR of S. aureus in five geographical areas in central Oromia, Ethiopia. We isolated S. aureus from 10 different ecologies per area in 5 areas and tested their sensitivity to 14 antimicrobials of 9 different classes. We ranked the 5 areas and 10 ecologies by computing their multiple AMR index (MARI) at a cut-off value of 0.2 to determine 'high-risk' ecologies for AMR. We recorded as MDR if an isolate had resistance to ≥3 antimicrobial classes. We used a circos diagram to analyze if isolates with identical AMR patterns were shared between different ecologies. S. aureus is prevalent in central Oromia (16.1-18.3%), higher in dairy farms than in abattoirs, and varied among 10 ecologies (p < 0.001) but not among 5 areas (p > 0.05). Of the 92 isolates, 94.6% were penicillin-resistant. Their AMR prevalence was above 40% for 9 of 14 antimicrobials. All isolates (100%) had AMR in at least one antimicrobial class (range = 1-9; median = 5), indicating MDR was prevalent. The prevalence of MDR S. aureus varied (p < 0.05) among areas and 10 ecologies; the highest was in slaughter lines. All isolates had a MARI of >0.2, indicating drug overuse, and S. aureus's AMR burden is high in central Oromia. Dairy farms had higher MARI values (0.44) than abattoirs (0.39). Of 10 ecologies, the highest and lowest MARI values were in the beef supply chain, i.e., slaughter line (0.67) and butcher's hand (0.25). Of the 68 different AMR patterns by 92 isolates against 14 antimicrobials, 53 patterns (77.9%) were unique to individual isolates, indicating they were phenotypically dissimilar. MDR S. aureus was widespread in central Oromia in dairy and meat supply chains, contaminating milk, meat, equipment, and workers in farm and abattoir settings. In the absence of strict regulations and interventions, MDR S. aureus can be disseminated from these epicenters to the public.

Epidemic characterization and modeling within herd transmission dynamics of an "emerging trans-boundary" camel disease epidemic in Ethiopia.

A highly acute and contagious camel disease, an epidemic wave of unknown etiology, referred to here as camel sudden death syndrome, has plagued camel population in countries in the Horn of Africa. To better understand its epidemic patterns and transmission dynamics, we used epidemiologic parameters and differential equation deterministic modeling (SEIR/D-model) to predict the outcome likelihood following an exposure of susceptible camel population. Our results showed 45.7, 17.6, and 38.6 % overall morbidity, mortality, and case fatality rates of the epidemic, respectively. Pregnant camels had the highest mortality and case fatality rates, followed by breeding males, and lactating females, implying serious socioeconomic consequences. Disease dynamics appeared to be linked to livestock trade route and animal movements. The epidemic exhibited a strong basic reproductive number (R (0)) with an average of 16 camels infected by one infectious case during the entire infectious period. The epidemic curve suggested that the critical moment of the disease development is approximately between 30 and 40 days, where both infected/exposed and infectious camels are at their highest numbers. The lag between infected/infectious curves indicates a time-shift of approximately 3-5 days from when a camel is infected and until it becomes infectious. According to this predictive model, of all animals exposed to the infection, 66.8 % (n = 868) and 33.2 % (n = 431) had recovered and died, respectively, at the end of epidemic period. Hence, if early measures are not taken, such an epidemic could cause a much more devastative effect, within short period of time than the anticipated proportion.

Epidemiology and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Pattern of E. coli O157:H7 Along Dairy Milk Supply Chain in Central Ethiopia.

Background: Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (O157:H7) is the primary cause of bloody diarrhea or hemorrhagic colitis. The study was carried out with to determine the epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance pattern of E. coli O157:H7 along the dairy supply chains in Akaki Kaliti sub-city of Addis Ababa, Bishoftu and Sululta towns of central Ethiopia. Methods: A cross-sectional study design with random sampling methods was employed. Thus, a total of 450 raw cow milk (294), milker hand swab (65) and water (91) samples were collected from dairy farms, milk collection centers and Cafeterias and processed according to the standards to isolate and identify E. coli O157:H7. The samples were initially enriched in buffered peptone water, then plated onto Sorbitol MacConkey agar. Consequently, the suspected non-sorbitol fermenting colonies were confirmed as E. coli biochemically and serological test using latex agglutination tests. Results: Out of the total 450 samples examined, 6.0% were found to be contaminated by E. coli O157:H7. Accordingly, 9.89% of water, 9.23% of milker hand swab and 4.08% of raw milk samples were contaminated by the pathogen. Furthermore, the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 was 7.79%, 6.21% and 3.97% in Akaki kaliti sub-city, Sululta and Bishoftu towns, respectively. The result of Fisher exact analysis revealed a significant difference observed (p < 0.05) between the occurrence of the pathogen and the source of sample, sources of water used, sampled material and type of containers. The study also revealed that varying level of resistance of E. coli O157:H7 isolates against nine antimicrobial discs tested and 100% (n = 27) of the isolates showed multidrug-resistance comprising from two up to seven antimicrobial drugs. Conclusion: In conclusion, this study has indicated the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7 and its multiple drug-resistant profiles in milk samples along the dairy supply chains and its risk to public health and food safety. Therefore, proper hygienic practices from dairy farms to fork and rational drug usage are recommended.

Epidemiology of Avian Tuberculosis in Selected Districts of Oromia Region, Ethiopia.

Avian tuberculosis is a growing public health concern and a significant impediment to socioeconomic development, especially in developing countries, where the risk of infection is high. The disease is predominantly caused by Mycobacterium avium belonging to serotypes 1, 2, 3, and 6 (genotypes IS901 and IS1245) and Mycobacterium genavense. It mostly occurs in older birds and immunocompromised individuals due to the greater opportunity for infection with age and host immunity. A cross-sectional study anticipated to generate epidemiological information on avian tuberculosis was carried out from November 2016 to June 2017 at highland areas of Gerar Jarso, Ada'a (midland), and Boset (lowland) districts of Oromia region, Ethiopia. Two hundred seventy-three village chickens comprising local breeds, exotic breeds, and crossbreeds of both sexes were used in the study. Single intradermal avian tuberculin test, postmortem inspection of positive reactors, mycobacteriological culturing, and histopathological examination were used to assess information on the epidemiology of the disease. Subsequently, avian tuberculin test revealed an overall apparent prevalence of 11.4% (31/273) and a specific prevalence of 6.8% (6/88) in the highland, 13.4% (13/97) in the midland, and 13.6% (12/88) in the lowland study districts. Besides, it signified a higher odd of exposure in crossbreeds and females as compared to locals and males. In addition, greater odd of exposure was observed in chickens at mid- and low altitudes as compared to those at the highland. Moreover, 40.9% (9/22) of positive reactor chickens sacrificed for necropsy showed gross pathological lesions. Similarly, histopathological examination revealed a granuloma characterized by central necrosis and peripheral mononuclear lymphocytes. Nevertheless, only 0.02% (2/120) of the cultured tissues had shown colonial growth up to 12 weeks of incubation, and both were seen on sodium pyruvate-enriched Lowenstein-Jensen medium slants. Generally, the study revealed an overall increment of the apparent prevalence of avian tuberculosis with decreasing altitude. Besides, it signified a relative breed and sex variation in the risk of acquiring the disease, with crossbreeds and female chickens having higher odds of exposure.

Seroprevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Ovine Brucellosis in South Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease with economic and public health significance in developing countries that rely on livestock production including Ethiopia. This study intended to establish the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of ovine brucellosis. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out on seroepidemiology of ovine brucellosis from January 2017 to June 2020 G.C in five districts of South Omo zone, Southern Ethiopia. A total of 1536 sera samples were collected from sheep and serially tested using modified Rose Bengal plate test, competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and complement fixation test to detect antibodies against natural infection by Brucella species. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from individual animals, and flocks for the analysis of the association between expounding and outcome variables. Data were analyzed using STATA version 14.0 and potential risk factors for seropositivity of brucellosis were analyzed using logistic regression. RESULTS: The study discovered an overall 5.40% (95% CI: 6.34, 14.25) and 39.74% (95% CI: 6.50, 6.97) seroprevalence of ovine brucellosis at individual and flock level, respectively, by a confirmatory test. Age groups, sex, flock size, district, history of abortion, and body condition were significantly associated risk factors with Brucella seropositivity (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: To conclude, the prevalence of ovine brucellosis in the South Omo Zone was relatively high which needs integrated intervention approaches in place to curb the spread of the disease.

Detection and Antimicrobial Resistance of Staphylococcus Species from Chicken, Chicken Litter, and Humans in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Background: In veterinary medicine, three Staphylococcus species are of particular importance as primary causes of specific diseases; S. aureus (mastitis in ruminants, equine botryomycosis, and bumble foot in poultry), S. hycus (porcine exudative epidermitis), and S. intermedius (canine pyoderma). The disease conditions caused by Staphylococcus in poultry vary with site, route, and predisposing factors include wounds as a result of fighting/cannibalism, immunosuppression based on virus infection or parasite infestation, and bad husbandry conditions (overcrowding). The objectives of this study were to isolate and identify Staphylococcus spp from chicken and chicken litter and personnel at chicken farm and to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of the isolates. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on apparently healthy chickens, farm personnel, and chicken litter at poultry farms in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A total of 222 samples consisting of 101 cloacal swabs, 90 tracheal swabs, 17 pooled litter swabs, 7 nasal swabs, and 7 pooled hand and boot swabs were collected from six farms and examined for the presence of Staphylococcus species. Antimicrobial resistance against 10 antimicrobial agents was also conducted following recommended standard procedures. Results: Overall proportion of Staphylococcus was 64/222 (28.83%). Of the isolates, 40/64 (62.5%), 11/64 (17.2%), 3/64 (4.7%), and 10/64 (15.6%), were S. aureus, S. hycus, S. intermedius, and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), respectively. Only one isolate of S. aureus was susceptible to all antimicrobials tested. Of the 10 antibiotics tested, the isolates demonstrated highest resistance against Penicillin G (96.9%) followed by Tetracycline (78.1%), and Amoxicillin and Erythromycin at the same level (65.6%). Conversely, the isolates were highly susceptible to Ciprofloxacin (95.3%) followed by Sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim (85.9%). Out of 64 isolates, 61/64 (95.3%) were resistant to three or more antimicrobials tested. Of the isolates, 38/40 (95%) S. aureus, 10/11 (90.9%) S. hycus, 3/3 (100%) S. intermedius, and 10/10 (100%) CNS showed multidrug resistance. Conclusion: This study showed a considerable proportion of Staphylococcus spp in chicken litter and farm workers with a potential source of resistant Staphylococcus species, and more importantly multidrug resistance strains. Further studies on molecular characterization of the isolates will be essential to identify the resistant genes and establish epidemiological links in the transmission dynamics of resistant Staphylococcus species between poultry and humans.

Entomological survey of the potential vectors of Rift Valley fever virus and absence of detection of the virus genome from the vectors in various niches in the southern half of the Great Rift Valley of Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is the cause of one of the most important mosquito-borne emerging diseases negatively affecting the health of humans and animals, particularly in Africa. In Ethiopia, the status of RVFV and the existence of potential vectors are unknown. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to survey the mosquito vectors of RVFV and the detection of the virus in selected sites (Batu, Hawassa, Arba Minch and Borana) in Ethiopia. METHODS: CDC light traps baited with the sugar-yeast solution were set up at various locations for a total of 29 trap nights. Mosquitoes identification were made morphologically using a stereomicroscope and for RVFV detection by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). RESULTS: Among a total of 132 trap efforts conducted, 60 (45%) captured the mosquitoes. A total of 1576 adult mosquitoes were collected and identified. Including Aedes (n = 407; 25.8%), Anopheles (n = 493; 32.3%), Culex (n = 466; 29.6%) and Mansonia (n = 210; 13.32%). The genome material of RVFV was not detected by RT-PCR. CONCLUSIONS: The existence of a potential Aedes species may pose a risk for the occurrence of the RVF outbreak in Ethiopia. Based on the current study, we recommend further monitoring for potential mosquito vectors of RVFV, particularly with a view to targeting the seasons during which the mosquitoes can be abundant along with a serological survey of susceptible hosts.

Seroprevalence of brucellosis and its contribution to abortion in cattle, camel, and goat kept under pastoral management in Borana, Ethiopia.

The involvement of Brucella infection in causing abortion was investigated in a breeding female subpopulation of 283 cattle, 756 camels, and 757 goats. Serum samples were serially tested using the Rose Bengal test and complement fixation test. The study showed that anti-Brucella antibodies were prevalent in 10.6% (95% confidence interval (CI), 7.4, 14.9), 2.2% (95%CI, 1.4, 3.7), and 1.9% (95%CI, 1.1, 3.2) of cattle, camel, and goats, respectively. Abortion was more commonly reported in camels (23.4%) than cattle (13.8%) and goats (12.4%). The results of this study suggested that Brucella infections contribute significantly to abortion in cattle (odds ratio (OR), = 4.7; 95%CI, 2.0, 10.8) and goats (OR = 6.9; 95%CI, 2.2, 21.7) but not in camels. The number of young animals produced by breeding females seems to be apparently reduced in seropositive groups. Keeping more than two animal species at household level was found to be the risk factor for cattle (OR = 3.1; 95%CI, 1.2, 7.9) and camel (OR = 5.3; 95%CI, 1.2-23.5) seropositivity to Brucella infection when compared to those animals from households that keep only two animal species. This may suggest a possibility of cross species transmission of Brucella infection under such mixed herding. Wet season (OR = 4.8; 95%CI, 1.3, 18.1) was found to be associated with seropositivity in goats, linked to a coincidence of increased deliveries in flocks with possible excretion of Brucella organisms. The study results suggest that Brucella infection is the likely cause of abortion in cattle and goats while other causes largely outweigh brucellosis as a cause of abortion in camels in Borana, hence, contributing to reproductive loss.

A Preliminary Study on Public Health Implications of Avian Tuberculosis in Selected Districts of the Oromia Region, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Avian tuberculosis is a zoonotic disease which remains a problem in extensive poultry production systems under which chickens scavenge for survival in unhygienic environments. Methodology. A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2016 to June 2017 at high-land areas of Gerar Jarso and Ada'a and Boset districts located at mid and low altitudes of Oromia, Ethiopia, respectively, to assess the perception of farmers on the occurrence of avian tuberculosis in chickens and its public health implications using a semistructured questionnaire. RESULT: The study evidenced poor awareness of the farmers, as only 11% (10/91) of them had well-perceived occurrence of the disease in chickens and its risk of zoonosis. CONCLUSION: Hence, it revealed that there is poor public perception on the occurrence as well as public health implications of avian tuberculosis, demanding further studies for verification and technical interventions.

Incidence of morbidity and mortality in calves from birth to six months of age and associated risk factors on dairy farms in Hawassa city, southern Ethiopia.

Calf morbidity and mortality are major causes of economic losses on dairy farms worldwide, with a far greater impact in developing countries such as Ethiopia. A prospective longitudinal study on dairy farms in the city of Hawassa was conducted between August 2018 and July 2019, to estimate the cumulative incidence of calf morbidity and mortality and to identify the associated risk factors. For this purpose, 221 calves from 20 farms were examined every 15 days from birth to the age of six months. We used the Kaplan Meier (K-M) method, log rank test, and Cox proportional hazards regression to analyze the data. Of the calves examined, 48.4% (n = 107) had various clinically visible health problems, while 19.5% (n = 43) died from various causes. Using the K-M method, the cumulative incidence of all-cause morbidity at the end of the sixth month of life was 50.12% (95% CI: 43.58%-57.05%), while the cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality was 20.04% (95% CI: 12.56%-26.06%). The most commonly diagnosed disease syndrome was diarrhea (64.5%), followed by pneumonia (15%), septicemia (6.5%), joint disease (4.7%), conjunctivitis (3.7%), umbilical infections (2, 8%) and other unknown causes (11.2%). Diarrhea was also the leading cause of death (46.5%). The other causes of calf mortality were pneumonia (16.3%), septicemia (7%), and unknown diseases (30.2%). In the K-M hazard analysis, the greatest risk of calf morbidity and mortality was observed during the first month of life and then the risk decreased significantly as the calves grew. Of the 21 potential risk factors studied, the multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression model showed that time calves ingested their first colostrum, calving difficulty, and calving season were the three predictors that were significantly associated with a higher risk of morbidity and mortality. A higher risk of morbidity was observed in calves that had ingested their first colostrum six hours after birth (HR = 1.9; P = 0.003), had calving difficulties (HR = 2.96; P < 0.001) and were born in the rainy season (HR = 1.64; P = 0.017) compared to calves that had consumed colostrum immediately after birth, had no difficulties at birth and were born in the dry season. The same three factors have been identified to influence calf mortality. The mortality risk was 2.73 (P = 0.002), 4.62 (P < 0.001) and 2.74 (P = 0.002) times higher in calves that had difficulty calving, ingested their first colostrum meal six hours after birth and were born in the rainy season, respectively. In general, the calf morbidity and mortality rates identified in this study were beyond economically justifiable limits and calls for educating farmers to raise awareness of some easy-to-fix issues such as colostrum feeding.

Identification and Characterization of Campylobacter Species in Livestock, Humans, and Water in Livestock Owning Households of Peri-urban Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: A One Health Approach.

Campylobacter is the most common cause of bacterial infectious diarrhea and acute gastroenteritis globally, and is recognized as a significant zoonotic pathogen. Antimicrobial resistance amongst Campylobacter isolates is a significant global concern. A cross-sectional study was conducted to identify and characterize Campylobacter species in humans, animals and water sources in livestock owning households of peri-urban Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; and to characterize antimicrobial resistance. A total of 519 fecal samples from humans (n = 99), livestock (n = 179), poultry (n = 69), and water (n = 172) were collected. Samples were cultured for viable Campylobacter spp. and multiplex PCR utilized for the identification and confirmation. Antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates was assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. Campylobacter spp. was detected in 67/519 (13.0%) of the total tested samples, and the household level prevalence of Campylobacter was 42.4%. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was: humans (10.1%), cattle (18.5%), poultry (13.0%), sheep (13.3%), goats (7.1%), and water (10.5%). Campylobacter jejuni and C. fetus were the most frequently isolated species, followed by C. coli. The majority of isolates obtained from human samples had co-occurrence with isolates from cattle, poultry or water samples from the same household. The use of stored water, the practice of indoor and outdoor manure collecting, and animal species Campylobacter positivity were significantly associated with greater odds of human Campylobacter spp. positivity. All Campylobacter isolates from humans, poultry, sheep, goats and water, and 96.0% of isolates from cattle were resistant to at least one or more of the tested antimicrobials, with 95.5% of isolates resistant to three or more classes of antimicrobials. A One Health approach is recommended to further investigate Campylobacter species infections, and other zoonotic infectious diseases, in the livestock owning populations in Ethiopia, where there is close interaction between humans, animals and the environment.

Bovine fasciolosis: coprological, abattoir survey and its economic impact due to liver condemnation at Soddo municipal abattoir, Southern Ethiopia.

A study was carried out to determine the prevalence and the species of liver flukes in indigenous adult cattle, to compare the diagnostic efficiency of fecal and post mortem examination and to assess the economic significance of bovine fasciolosis due to liver condemnation in the abattoir. Of the 406 livers and fecal samples examined, 57 (14.0%) and 20 (4.9%) were positive for fasciolosis. The most common liver fluke species affecting the cattle was Fasciola gigantica, 9.1% of cattle were infected with F. gigantica while, Fasciola. hepatica, mixed infections and unidentified or immature forms of Fasciola spp. were present in 3.2 %, 0.7% and 1 % of cattle, respectively. A retrospective abattoir survey revealed that the prevalence of fasciolosis was 12.7%. The prevalence of fasciolosis recorded in this study was lower than that reported by other researchers in this country. There was a strong relationship between fecal examination and postmortem findings of liver lesions, (K = 0.23) but under local conditions, postmortem examination was considered a better diagnostic tool for fasciolosis. Fasciolosis is of significant economic importance as the resultant liver condemnations caused an average loss of 4000 USD per annum. Hence, this disease deserves serious attention by the various stakeholders in order to promote the beef industry in the study area in particular and in the country in general.

Gastrointestinal nematode infections in small ruminants under the traditional husbandry system during the dry season in southern Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2008 to February 2009 to investigate the prevalence and intensity of infection and risk factors of gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes in small ruminants kept under the traditional husbandry system in two districts in southern Ethiopia. Faecal samples collected from a total of 510 small ruminants (284 sheep and 226 goats) and analysed by a modified McMaster technique revealed that 222 animals (43.5%) were found to be infected with one or more GI nematodes. Five identical genera of nematodes were found in both sheep and goats, which in order of predominance were Haemonchus (56.3%), Trichostrongylus (39.6%), Oesophagostomum (22.9%), Trichuris (21.6%) and Bunostomum (10.4%). No significant (p > 0.05) differences were observed between sheep and goats proportions except for Trichuris (p < 0.05). In both sheep and goats, most of the animals were heavily infected showing faecal egg counts (FECs) above 1,200 epg. Sheep had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher mean FEC than goats. In sheep and goats, both the prevalence of GI nematodes and mean FEC were significantly (p < 0.001) associated with body condition score and faecal consistency but not with district, sex and age (p > 0.05 for each factor). In conclusion, the observation of a strong association of GI nematodes with poor body condition coupled with heavy intensity of infection in the majority of infected animals and an abundance of nematode genera of widespread economic and pathological significance warrants the institution of appropriate control measures that should necessarily include improvement of the nutritional status of the animals.

Occurrence of mastitis and associated risk factors in lactating goats under pastoral management in Borana, Southern Ethiopia.

Mastitis prevalence and related risk factors were studied in 1,072 udder halves of 536 lactating goats from October, 2008 to February, 2009. Clinical and subclinical mastitis were prevalent in 4.3% (95% CI = 2.8, 6.5) and 11.2% (95% CI = 8.7, 14.3) of the studied animals, respectively, resulting in an overall prevalence of 15.5% (95% CI = 12.6, 18.9). Univariate analysis of the potential risk factors has depicted that mastitis was more prevalent in does with previous mastitis history, increased parity, poor body conditions, increased milk production, late lactation stage, long teat, and housed goats. Furthermore, prevalence was significantly higher (p < 0.05) during the wet period of October to November than the dry periods of January to February. No significant variations (p > 0.05) were observed in mastitis prevalence with udder tick infestation, mixing goat with sheep and flock size. With multivariable analysis, lactation stage, teat length, body condition, and season (wet months) have showed significant association with mastitis prevalence, and these factors maintained significant in the stepwise elimination of multivariable logistic regression model. As a result, does in late stage of lactation (OR = 4.3, 1.8, 10.4), poor body condition (OR = 5.0, 1.7, 10.0), long teats (OR = 2.2, 95% CI = 1.1, 4.2) and does examined in wet period were at higher risk of udder infections than early lactation, good body condition, short teat, and examined in dry period, respectively. The study showed occurrence of mastitis and associated risk factors in studied goats, which suggests the need for control intervention. Further investigations into pathogens involved in goat mastitis will optimize our knowledge of causative agents and control interventions.