Predictors of primary care psychological therapy outcomes for depression and anxiety in people living with dementia: evidence from national healthcare records in England.

BACKGROUND: Psychological therapies can be effective in reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety in people living with dementia (PLWD). However, factors associated with better therapy outcomes in PLWD are currently unknown. AIMS: To investigate whether dementia-specific and non-dementia-specific factors are associated with therapy outcomes in PLWD. METHOD: National linked healthcare records were used to identify 1522 PLWD who attended psychological therapy services across England. Associations between various factors and therapy outcomes were explored. RESULTS: People with frontotemporal dementia were more likely to experience reliable deterioration in depression/anxiety symptoms compared with people with vascular dementia (odds ratio 2.98, 95% CI 1.08-8.22; P = 0.03) or Alzheimer's disease (odds ratio 2.95, 95% CI 1.15-7.55; P = 0.03). Greater depression severity (reliable recovery: odds ratio 0.95, 95% CI 0.92-0.98, P < 0.001; reliable deterioration: odds ratio 1.73, 95% CI 1.04-2.90, P = 0.04), lower work and social functioning (recovery: odds ratio 0.98, 95% CI 0.96-0.99, P = 0.002), psychotropic medication use (recovery: odds ratio 0.67, 95% CI 0.51-0.90, P = 0.01), being of working age (recovery: odds ratio 2.03, 95% CI 1.10-3.73, P = 0.02) and fewer therapy sessions (recovery: odds ratio 1.12, 95% CI 1.09-1.16, P < 0.001) were associated with worse therapy outcomes in PLWD. CONCLUSIONS: Dementia type was generally not associated with outcomes, whereas clinical factors were consistent with those identified for the general population. Additional support and adaptations may be required to improve therapy outcomes in PLWD, particularly in those who are younger and have more severe depression.

Psychological therapies for depression and cardiovascular risk: evidence from national healthcare records in England.

AIMS: People with depression are up to 72% more at risk to develop cardiovascular disease (CVD) in their lifetime. Evidence-based psychotherapies are first-line interventions for the treatment of depression and are delivered nationally in England through the National Health Service via the Improving Access to Psychological Therapy (IAPT) primary care programme. It is currently unknown whether positive therapy outcomes may be associated with cardiovascular risk reduction. This study aimed to examine the association between psychotherapy outcomes for depression and incident CVD. METHODS AND RESULTS: A cohort of 636 955 individuals who have completed a course of psychotherapy was built from linked electronic healthcare record databases of national coverage in England: the national IAPT database, the Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) database, and the HES-ONS (Office of National Statistics) mortality database. Multivariable Cox models adjusting for clinical and demographic covariates were run to estimate the association between reliable improvement from depression and the risk of subsequent incidence of cardiovascular events. After a median follow-up of 3.1 years, reliable improvement from depression symptoms was associated with a lower risk of new onset of any CVD [hazard ratio (HR): 0.88, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.86, 0.89], coronary heart disease (HR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.86, 0.92), stroke (HR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.83, 0.94), and all-cause mortality (HR: 0.81, 95% CI: 0.78, 0.84). This association was stronger in the under 60 compared with the over 60 for all outcomes. Results were confirmed in sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION: Management of depression through psychological interventions may be associated with reduced risk of CVD. More research is needed to understand the causality of these associations.

Understanding the psychological therapy treatment outcomes for young adults who are not in education, employment, or training (NEET), moderators of outcomes, and what might be done to improve them.

BACKGROUND: To determine: whether young adults (aged 18-24) not in education, employment or training (NEET) have different psychological treatment outcomes to other young adults; any socio-demographic or treatment-related moderators of differential outcomes; and whether service-level changes are associated with better outcomes for those who are NEET. METHODS: A cohort was formed of 20 293 young adults treated with psychological therapies in eight Improving Access to Psychological Therapies services. Pre-treatment characteristics, outcomes, and moderators of differential outcomes were compared for those who were and were not NEET. Associations between outcomes and the following were assessed for those that were NEET: missing fewer sessions, attending more sessions, having a recorded diagnosis, and waiting fewer days between referral and starting treatment. RESULTS: Those who were NEET had worse outcomes: odds ratio (OR) [95% confidence interval (CI)] for reliable recovery = 0.68 (0.63-0.74), for deterioration = 1.41 (1.25-1.60), and for attrition = 1.31 (1.19-1.43). Ethnic minority participants that were NEET had better outcomes than those that were White and NEET. Living in deprived areas was associated with worse outcomes. The intensity of treatment (high or low) did not moderate outcomes, but having more sessions was associated with improved outcomes for those that were NEET: odds (per one-session increase) of reliable recovery = 1.10 (1.08-1.12), deterioration = 0.94 (0.91-0.98), and attrition = 0.68 (0.66-0.71). CONCLUSIONS: Earlier treatment, supporting those that are NEET to attend sessions, and in particular, offering them more sessions before ending treatment might be effective in improving clinical outcomes. Additional support when working with White young adults that are NEET and those in more deprived areas may also be important.

Associations between psychological therapy outcomes for depression and incidence of dementia.

BACKGROUND: Depression is an important, potentially modifiable dementia risk factor. However, it is not known whether effective treatment of depression through psychological therapies is associated with reduced dementia incidence. The aim of this study was to investigate associations between reduction in depressive symptoms following psychological therapy and the subsequent incidence of dementia. METHODS: National psychological therapy data were linked with hospital records of dementia diagnosis for 119808 people aged 65+. Participants received a course of psychological therapy treatment in Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) services between 2012 and 2019. Cox proportional hazards models were run to test associations between improvement in depression following psychological therapy and incidence of dementia diagnosis up to eight years later. RESULTS: Improvements in depression following treatment were associated with reduced rates of dementia diagnosis up to 8 years later (HR = 0.88, 95% CI 0.83-0.94), after adjustment for key covariates. Strongest effects were observed for vascular dementia (HR = 0.86, 95% CI 0.77-0.97) compared with Alzheimer's disease (HR = 0.91, 95% CI 0.83-1.00). CONCLUSIONS: Reliable improvement in depression across psychological therapy was associated with reduced incidence of future dementia. Results are consistent with at least two possibilities. Firstly, psychological interventions to improve symptoms of depression may have the potential to contribute to dementia risk reduction efforts. Secondly, psychological therapies may be less effective in people with underlying dementia pathology or they may be more likely to drop out of therapy (reverse causality). Tackling the under-representation of older people in psychological therapies and optimizing therapy outcomes is an important goal for future research.

The Feasibility of a Mindfulness Intervention for Depression in People with Mild Dementia: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVES: This preliminary study aimed to establish the feasibility of running an adapted Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) intervention for people with mild dementia and depression. It also aimed to conduct an exploratory analysis as to whether the MBCT intervention would lead to greater improvements in measures of depression, anxiety, quality of life and cognition, as compared to treatment as usual (TAU). METHODS: A single-blind, multisite, feasibility randomized controlled trial was used. People with dementia and depression were recruited from participating memory services. Twenty participants were randomized to either an adapted MBCT and TAU group (n = 10) or TAU (n = 10). Measures of depression, anxiety, quality of life (QOL), and cognition were assessed at baseline and follow-up. RESULTS: The intervention was feasible in terms of high attendance and low levels of attrition. It was not judged feasible to recruit enough participants within the recruitment time-frame. The MBCT group did not show significant improvements in depression, anxiety, QOL, and cognition at follow-up, as compared to TAU. CONCLUSION: There is currently inadequate evidence to recommend this adapted MBCT intervention for people with dementia for the treatment of depression within memory services. The MBCT intervention needs redevelopment and piloting before further testing in an RCT.

Understanding differences in mental health service use by men: an intersectional analysis of routine data.

PURPOSE: Rates of help-seeking for common mental health problems are lower for men, but less is known about patterns of engagement once they are in contact with services. Previous research has been limited in its ability to understand the intersection between service user characteristics and engagement. This study compared analytic approaches to investigate intersectional associations between sociodemographic and socioeconomic indicators and use of psychological treatment services by men. METHOD: Data from 9,904 male service users attending two psychological treatment services in London were analysed. The association between ethnicity, sexual orientation, religious affiliation and employment status of service users and service use outcomes was explored using multinomial logistic regression and latent class analysis (LCA). RESULTS: Being from a minoritised ethnic background, of Muslim faith, being unemployed, and living in the most deprived neighbourhoods were associated with greater risk of not commencing or completing treatment. Seven classes were identified in LCA, with men predominately differentiated by self-reported ethnicity and religion. Compared with the 'White British, non-religious' class, the 'Asian Muslim' class and the 'minoritised ethnic, non-religious' class were at higher risk of disengagement, whilst the 'Asian, other religion' class were at higher risk of being referred elsewhere rather than completing initiated treatment. CONCLUSIONS: There were significant inequalities in engagement by men associated with ethnicity, religion and socioeconomic status. Compared with the regression models, further nuance was apparent in LCA regarding the intersection of gender, religion and ethnicity. Identifying groups at greater risk of discontinuation of treatment could inform more personalised pathways through care.

Individual cognitive stimulation therapy (iCST) for people with intellectual disability and dementia: a feasibility randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the feasibility, acceptability and fidelity of individual Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (iCST) in people with intellectual disability (ID) and dementia. METHOD: We aimed to recruit forty dyads (carer and individual with dementia and ID) who were randomised to iCST or a waiting list control group. Both groups received treatment as usual. Family and paid carers delivered the manualised intervention (40 sessions over 20 weeks). Recruitment and retention of participants, intervention adherence, fidelity and acceptability were assessed. Outcome measures of cognition, adaptive functioning, quality of life (QoL) and carer outcomes were collected at baseline, midpoint (11 weeks) and at 21 weeks. Qualitative interviews were conducted with six carers about their experience of iCST. RESULTS: Forty dyads were recruited over 10 months from 12 National Health Service trusts. One dyad dropped out and 87.5% and 97.5% completed the midpoint and end-point assessments respectively. Assessment of fidelity indicated that the correct session structure was not followed; 70% completed at least 20 sessions and there was a high level of satisfaction with iCST. QoL was significantly higher in the iCST arm at 21 weeks (adjusted mean difference: 3.11; 95% CI: 0.64 to 5.58). There were no differences in the other outcome measures. CONCLUSION: The intervention was feasible and acceptable. A full-scale trial is warranted but some modifications are needed, including improved training and supervision for carers to improve fidelity.

"Falling through the cracks"; Stakeholders' views around the concept and diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment and their understanding of dementia prevention.

OBJECTIVES: Many people live with an awareness of mild cognitive changes that increase their dementia risk. Previous authors describe the uncertainties of this liminal state, between cognitive health and dementia, where being "at risk" can itself be an illness. We ask how services respond to people with memory concerns currently, and how a future, effective and inclusive dementia prevention intervention might be structured for people with memory concerns. METHODS/DESIGN: We conducted qualitative interviews with 18 people aged 60+ years with subjective or objective memory problems, six family members, 10 health and social care professionals and 11 third sector workers. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and analysed using an inductive thematic approach. RESULTS: Three main themes were identified: (1) acknowledging the liminal state, compounded by current, discordant health service responses: medicalising memory concerns yet situating responsibilities for their management with patients and families; (2) enabling change in challenging contexts of physical and cognitive frailty and social disengagement and (3) building on existing values, cultures and routines. CONCLUSIONS: Effective dementia prevention must empower individuals to make lifestyle changes within challenging contexts. Programmes must be evidence based yet sufficiently flexible to allow new activities to be fitted into people's current lives; and mindful of the risks of pathologising memory concerns. Most current memory services are neither commissioned, financially or clinically resourced to support people with memory concerns without dementia. Effective, large scale dementia prevention will require a broad societal response.

APPLE-Tree (Active Prevention in People at risk of dementia: Lifestyle, bEhaviour change and Technology to REducE cognitive and functional decline) programme: Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Observational studies indicate that approximately a third of dementia cases are attributable to modifiable cardiometabolic, physical and mental health, and social and lifestyle risk factors. There is evidence that intensive behaviour change interventions targeting these factors can reduce cognitive decline. [Figure: see text] METHODS AND ANALYSIS: We will design and test a low intensity, secondary dementia-prevention programme (Active Prevention in People at risk of dementia: Lifestyle, bEhaviour change and Technology to REducE cognitive and functional decline, "APPLE-Tree") to slow cognitive decline in people with subjective cognitive decline with or without objective cognitive impairment. We will embed our work within social science research to understand how dementia prevention is currently delivered and structured. We will carry out systematic reviews and around 50 qualitative interviews with stakeholders, using findings to coproduce the APPLE-Tree intervention. We plan a 10-session group intervention, involving personalised goal-setting, with individual sessions for those unable or unwilling to attend groups, delivered by psychology assistants who will be trained and supervised by clinical psychologists. The coproduction group (including public and patient involvement [PPI], academic and clinical/third-sector professional representatives) will use the Behaviour Change Wheel theoretical framework to develop it. We will recruit and randomly allocate 704 participants, 1:1 to the intervention: informational control group. This sample size is sufficient to detect a between-group difference at 2 years of 0.15 on the primary outcome (cognition: modified neuropsychological test battery; 90% power, 5% significance, effect size 0.25, SD 0.6). DISSEMINATION: We will work with Public Health England and third-sector partners to produce an effective national implementation approach, so that if our intervention works, it is used in practice.

Meta-analysis of psychosocial interventions for people with dementia and anxiety or depression.

Objectives: Assess the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for depression and anxiety in people with dementia (PWD) or mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Method: OvidMedline, PsychInfo and Embase were searched for studies on the 5th August 2017. The efficacy of the studies was estimated using meta-analyses. Results: Eight RCTs were included. No RCTs were identified for people with MCI. Four RCTs found that psychosocial interventions (multicomponent intervention, Tai Chi, problem adaptation therapy and exercise/walking) were effective at reducing symptoms of depression in PWD who were depressed. One study (Tai Chi) found that these reductions were no longer evident at six-month follow-up. Another study, not included in the meta-analyses, found that pleasant events behaviour therapy and problem solving behaviour therapy improved depression symptoms and this effect remained significant at follow-up. Three RCTs found that psychosocial interventions (music therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)) reduced symptoms of anxiety in PWD who were anxious. Evidence from two of these RCTs (music therapy and CBT) showed that these improvements were evident at three to six-month follow-up. Conclusion: The identified psychosocial interventions are effective at reducing symptoms of depression or anxiety in PWD experiencing these symptoms. This review is limited by the quality of studies, small sample sizes and the heterogeneity of the interventions, therefore high quality studies with larger sample sizes are required to test the efficacy of specific interventions such as CBT.

Staff training and outreach support for Cognitive Stimulation Therapy and its implementation in practice: a cluster randomised trial.

OBJECTIVE: There is evidence that Cognitive Stimulation Therapy and maintenance Cognitive Stimulation Therapy are effective in mild to moderate dementia. There is, however, little evidence available for its implementation in practice and the impact of outreach support on the sustainability of the programme. METHODS: Two hundred and forty-one staff members were randomised from 63 dementia care settings between outreach support including an online forum, email, and telephone support, compared to usual Cognitive Stimulation Therapy control group. The primary outcome was average number of attendees to the Cognitive Stimulation Therapy and maintenance Cognitive Stimulation Therapy programmes. RESULTS: There was no difference in average number of attendees between the intervention and usual Cognitive Stimulation Therapy control groups for the Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (p = 0.82) or the maintenance Cognitive Stimulation Therapy programme (p = 0.97). CONCLUSIONS: Outreach support does not affect the average number of people with dementia attending the Cognitive Stimulation Therapy or maintenance Cognitive Stimulation Therapy programme. Irrespective of outreach support, the programmes remain widely implemented and yield perceived benefits for people with dementia. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

ImpRess: an Implementation Readiness checklist developed using a systematic review of randomised controlled trials assessing cognitive stimulation for dementia.

BACKGROUND: Research reporting results of clinical trials, psychosocial or technological interventions frequently omit critical details needed to inform implementation in practice. The aim of this article is to develop an Implementation Readiness (ImpRess) checklist, that includes criteria deemed useful in measuring readiness for implementation and apply it to trials of cognitive stimulation in dementia, providing a systematic review of their readiness for widespread implementation. METHODS: Five electronic databases were searched. After initial screening of papers, two reviewers assessed quality and scored the included studies based on the ImpRess checklist specifically developed for this review. RESULTS: Twenty studies met the inclusion criteria. As determined by the ImpRess checklist, scores ranged from 11 to 29 out of 52. According to the checklist the most comprehensive and ready to implement version of cognitive stimulation was Cognitive Stimulation Therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Reports of interventions rarely include consideration of implementation in practice. Contrary to the growing number of reporting guidelines, crucial items within the ImpRess checklist have been frequently overlooked. This study was able to show that the ImpRess checklist was feasible in practice and reliable. The checklist may be useful in evaluating readiness for implementation for other manualised interventions.

How does the EQ-5D perform when measuring quality of life in dementia against two other dementia-specific outcome measures?

PURPOSE: This study aimed to assess and compare the psychometric performance of the EQ-5D in relation to other dementia-specific measures, the QoL-AD and DEMQoL, within a psychosocial intervention study. METHODS: Two hundred and seventy-two people with dementia completed the EQ-5D, DEMQoL and QoL-AD. Convergent and discriminant validity of the measures were assessed, and inter-rater reliability was tested by comparing the self-reported and proxy scores of the measures. Internal consistency was tested using Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS: Results satisfy convergent validity amongst the three outcome measures. EQ-5D, DEMQoL and QoL-AD total scores were shown to be significantly correlated with each other (p < 0.001) in both participants with dementia and proxy reports. Results also satisfied discriminant validity for participant EQ-5D, DEMQoL and QoL-AD total scores. In relation to reliability between self and proxy scores, the EQ-5D showed higher reliability scores between participant and proxy total scores for mild and moderate level of cognitive impairment and performed better than the dementia-specific measures. Reliability assessed through Cronbach's alpha was satisfactory, indicating adequate internal consistency of all three measures. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the EQ-5D might have advantages over other dementia-specific measures, and it could be used routinely and as a stand-alone measure of quality of life in dementia research.

Maintenance cognitive stimulation therapy for dementia: single-blind, multicentre, pragmatic randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: There is good evidence for the benefits of short-term cognitive stimulation therapy for dementia but little is known about possible long-term effects. AIMS: To evaluate the effectiveness of maintenance cognitive stimulation therapy (CST) for people with dementia in a single-blind, pragmatic randomised controlled trial including a substudy with participants taking acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs). METHOD: The participants were 236 people with dementia from 9 care homes and 9 community services. Prior to randomisation all participants received the 7-week, 14-session CST programme. The intervention group received the weekly maintenance CST group programme for 24 weeks. The control group received usual care. Primary outcomes were cognition and quality of life (clinical trial registration: ISRCTN26286067). RESULTS: For the intervention group at the 6-month primary end-point there were significant benefits for self-rated quality of life (Quality of Life in Alzheimer's Disease (QoL-AD) P = 0.03). At 3 months there were improvements for proxy-rated quality of life (QoL-AD P = 0.01, Dementia Quality of Life scale (DEMQOL) P = 0.03) and activities of daily living (P = 0.04). The intervention subgroup taking AChEIs showed cognitive benefits (on the Mini-Mental State Examination) at 3 (P = 0.03) and 6 months (P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Continuing CST improves quality of life; and improves cognition for those taking AChEIs.

The effects of a Cognitive Stimulation Therapy [CST] programme for people with dementia on family caregivers' health.

BACKGROUND: There is growing evidence that Cognitive Simulation Therapy (CST) benefits cognition and quality of life of people with dementia, but little is known about the indirect effects of this intervention on family caregivers. This study sought to investigate the effect of CST on family caregivers general health status of people with dementia living in the community attending the CST intervention. METHOD: Eighty-five family caregivers of people with dementia took part in the study. All the people with dementia received the standard twice weekly seven weeks of the CST intervention plus either 24 weeks of a maintenance CST (MCST) intervention or 24 weeks of treatment as usual. Family caregivers were assessed before and after their relatives the CST programme, and after 3 and 6 months of the MCST programme. A pre and post CST groups comparison was undertaken to evaluate the open trial first phase and an ANCOVA model used to analyse the maintenance phase with its controlled comparison. RESULTS: We found no evidence for a benefit on the family caregiver outcome measures of the intervention before and after CST groups by using a t-test analysis or any significant differences between intervention and control groups for any of the variables considered at any time point (3 and 6 month follow up). CONCLUSION: CST seems to have a relatively specific benefit fpr people with dementia that may not carry over to family carers. Future studies need to further explore and compare the effects that CST might bring to family caregivers of people with dementia attending the intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN26286067.

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound of liver lesions related to arterial thrombosis in adult liver transplantation.

PURPOSE: To describe the contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) features of liver and biliary lesions related to hepatic artery thrombosis in adult patients with orthotopic liver transplantation. METHODS: Gray-scale ultrasound (US), Doppler US, and CEUS using a hexafluoride-based US contrast media were performed on a series of eight patients with liver transplantation and hepatic artery thrombosis. RESULTS: Six of the cases presented infarctions, seen as parenchymal geographic areas of lack of enhancement. Biliary necrosis, seen as nonenhancing periportal cuff, was seen in one case. Infected biloma, seen as a nonenhancing hilar collection, was present in two cases. Infarction and biloma coexisted in one patient. Two abscesses were seen as a late complication in one case. One of them was seen as a typical necrotic abscess with a central nonenhancing area and peripheral rim enhancement higher than the surrounding liver. The other one was seen as a partially liquefied abscess. CONCLUSION: CEUS was useful to diagnose lesions related to hepatic artery thrombosis in liver transplantation. It enabled distinguishing between them and to define their size and extension better than conventional gray-scale US.

Group cognitive stimulation therapy versus usual care for people with intellectual disabilities and dementia (CST-IDD) in the UK: protocol for a mixed-methods feasibility randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of dementia is almost five times higher in people with intellectual disabilities compared with the general population. However, evidence-based treatments for this population are lacking, as most randomised controlled trials for dementia interventions have not included people with intellectual disabilities. Cognitive stimulation therapy (CST) has a robust evidence base in the general dementia population, consistently showing benefits to cognition, quality of life and being cost-effective. We are conducting a mixed-methods feasibility trial of group CST for people with intellectual disabilities and dementia, to determine if a future definitive randomised controlled trial is feasible. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Fifty individuals with intellectual disabilities and dementia will be randomised to either the intervention arm (14 sessions of group CST plus treatment as usual) or the control arm (treatment as usual). Randomisation will occur after informed consent has been obtained and baseline assessments completed. Each arm will have 25 participants, with the intervention arm divided into five or more CST groups with three to five participants in each. The outcomes will be feasibility of recruitment, acceptability and adherence of the intervention, suitability of study outcome measures and feasibility of collecting resource use data. Quantitative and qualitative approaches, including semistructured interviews with group participants, carers and group facilitators, will be employed to assess these outcomes. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study has been approved by Essex REC (Ref: 21/EE/027) and the HRA ethical approval process through the Integrated Research Application System (IRAS ID: 306 756). We plan to publish the results in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as provide feedback to funders, sponsors and study participants. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN88614460.

Associations between psychological intervention for anxiety disorders and risk of dementia: a prospective cohort study using national health-care records data in England.

BACKGROUND: Meta-analyses support an association between anxiety in older adulthood and dementia. The aim of this study was to use routinely collected health data to test whether treatment of anxiety disorders through psychological intervention is associated with a lower incidence of dementia. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, data from nationally provided psychological therapy services in England termed Improving Access to Psychological Therapies from 2012 to 2019 were linked to medical records, including dementia diagnoses as defined by the tenth edition of the International Classification of Diseases, up to 8 follow-up years later. Inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) patients who were aged 65 years and older; (2) patients with a probable anxiety disorder; and (3) those with no previous or current diagnosis of dementia. Cox proportional hazards models were constructed to test whether reliable improvement in anxiety following psychological intervention was associated with future dementia incidence. The primary outcome was all-cause dementia and cases were identified using ICD-10 dementia codes from Hospital Episode Statistics, Mental Health Services Dataset, and mortality data. For main analyses, hazards ratios (HRs) are presented. FINDINGS: Data from 128 077 people aged 65 years and older attending a nationally provided psychological intervention service in England were linked to medical records. 88 019 (69·0%) of 127 064 participants with available gender data were women and 39 585 (31·0%) were men. 111 225 (95·9%) of 115 989 with available ethnicity data were of White ethnicity. The mean age of the sample was 71·55 years (SD 5·69). Fully adjusted models included data from 111 958 people after 16 119 were excluded due to missing data on key variables or covariates. 4510 (4·0%) of 111 958 participants had a dementia diagnosis. The remaining 107 448 (96·0%) were censored either at date of death or when the final follow-up period available for analyses was reached. People who showed reliable improvement in anxiety had lower rates of later dementia diagnosis (3·9%) than those who did not show reliable improvement (5·1%). Reliable improvement in anxiety following psychological intervention was associated with reduced incidence of all-cause dementia (HR 0·83 [95% CI 0·78-0·88]), Alzheimer's disease (HR 0·85 [0·77-0·94]), and vascular dementia (HR 0·80 [0·71-0·90]). Effects did not differ depending on anxiety disorder diagnosis. INTERPRETATION: Results showed that reliable improvement in anxiety from psychological therapy was associated with reduced incidence of future dementia. There are multiple plausible explanations for this finding and further research is needed to distinguish between these possibilities. Missing data in the sample limit reliability of findings. FUNDING: Alzheimer's Society, Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust, and UCLH National Institute for Health and Care Research Biomedical Research Centre.

Cognitive stimulation to improve cognitive functioning in people with dementia.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive stimulation is an intervention for people with dementia which offers a range of enjoyable activities providing general stimulation for thinking, concentration and memory usually in a social setting, such as a small group. Its roots can be traced back to Reality Orientation (RO), which was developed in the late 1950s as a response to confusion and disorientation in older patients in hospital units in the USA. RO emphasised the engagement of nursing assistants in a hopeful, therapeutic process but became associated with a rigid, confrontational approach to people with dementia, leading to its use becoming less and less common.Cognitive stimulation is often discussed in normal ageing as well as in dementia. This reflects a general view that lack of cognitive activity hastens cognitive decline. With people with dementia, cognitive stimulation attempts to make use of the positive aspects of RO whilst ensuring that the stimulation is implemented in a sensitive, respectful and person-centred manner.There is often little consistency in the application and availability of psychological therapies in dementia services, so a systematic review of the available evidence regarding cognitive stimulation is important in order to identify its effectiveness and to place practice recommendations on a sound evidence base. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effectiveness and impact of cognitive stimulation interventions aimed at improving cognition for people with dementia, including any negative effects. SEARCH METHODS: The trials were identified from a search of the Cochrane Dementia and Cognitive Improvement Group Specialized Register, called ALOIS (updated 6 December 2011). The search terms used were: cognitive stimulation, reality orientation, memory therapy, memory groups, memory support, memory stimulation, global stimulation, cognitive psychostimulation. Supplementary searches were performed in a number of major healthcare databases and trial registers to ensure that the search was up to date and comprehensive. SELECTION CRITERIA: All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of cognitive stimulation for dementia which incorporated a measure of cognitive change were included. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Data were extracted independently by two review authors using a previously tested data extraction form. Study authors were contacted for data not provided in the papers. Two review authors conducted independent assessments of the risk of bias in included studies. MAIN RESULTS: Fifteen RCTs were included in the review. Six of these had been included in the previous review of RO. The studies included participants from a variety of settings, interventions that were of varying duration and intensity, and were from several different countries. The quality of the studies was generally low by current standards but most had taken steps to ensure assessors were blind to treatment allocation. Data were entered in the meta-analyses for 718 participants (407 receiving cognitive stimulation, 311 in control groups). The primary analysis was on changes that were evident immediately at the end of the treatment period. A few studies provided data allowing evaluation of whether any effects were subsequently maintained. A clear, consistent benefit on cognitive function was associated with cognitive stimulation (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.41, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.57). This remained evident at follow-up one to three months after the end of treatment. In secondary analyses with smaller total sample sizes, benefits were also noted on self-reported quality of life and well-being (standardised mean difference: 0.38 [95% CI: 0.11, 0.65]); and on staff ratings of communication and social interaction (SMD 0.44, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.71). No differences in relation to mood (self-report or staff-rated), activities of daily living, general behavioural function or problem behaviour were noted. In the few studies reporting family caregiver outcomes, no differences were noted. Importantly, there was no indication of increased strain on family caregivers in the one study where they were trained to deliver the intervention. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There was consistent evidence from multiple trials that cognitive stimulation programmes benefit cognition in people with mild to moderate dementia over and above any medication effects. However, the trials were of variable quality with small sample sizes and only limited details of the randomisation method were apparent in a number of the trials. Other outcomes need more exploration but improvements in self-reported quality of life and well-being were promising. Further research should look into the potential benefits of longer term cognitive stimulation programmes and their clinical significance.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression in people with dementia: A qualitative study on participant, carer and facilitator experiences.

BACKGROUND: Depression in dementia is common and associated with negative health outcomes. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy is a recommended treatment of choice for recurrent depression, but its use for depression in dementia is yet to be assessed. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the experiences of people with depression and dementia who participated in the mindfulness-based cognitive therapy intervention and those of their carers and facilitators. METHODS: This qualitative study was nested within a randomised controlled feasibility study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 people (eight people with dementia and depression, six carers and four course facilitators). Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. FINDINGS: Several beneficial effects of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy were described. These were a sense of shared suffering among the group, greater present moment focus and awareness, various positive emotional changes, including greater self-compassion, and benefits for carers, such as the reduction of anxiety. Specific aspects of the programme were identified as particularly useful, including facilitator characteristics and certain mindfulness practices. Carer involvement, cognitive difficulties and barriers to home practice influenced engagement with the course. Facilitators described adaptations made to mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and suggested additional modifications for future groups. CONCLUSION: Results of this process evaluation suggest that mindfulness-based cognitive therapy is a potentially useful intervention for people with depression in dementia, but that further adaptation of the intervention is required to make the programme suitable for this clinical population.