What Are the Principles That Guide Behaviors in the Operating Room?: Creating a Framework to Define and Measure Performance.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the core principles that guide expert intraoperative behaviors and to use these principles to develop a universal framework that defines intraoperative performance. BACKGROUND: Surgical outcomes are associated with intraoperative cognitive skills. Yet, our understanding of factors that control intraoperative judgment and decision-making are limited. As a result, current methods for training and measuring performance are somewhat subjective-more task rather than procedure-oriented-and usually not standardized. They thus provide minimal insight into complex cognitive processes that are fundamental to patient safety. METHODS: Cognitive task analyses for 6 diverse surgical procedures were performed using semistructured interviews and field observations to describe the thoughts, behaviors, and actions that characterize and guide expert performance. Verbal data were transcribed, supplemented with content from published literature, coded, thematically analyzed using grounded-theory by 4 independent reviewers, and synthesized into a list of items. RESULTS: A conceptual framework was developed based on 42 semistructured interviews lasting 45 to 120 minutes, 5 expert panels and 51 field observations involving 35 experts, and 135 sources from the literature. Five domains of intraoperative performance were identified: psychomotor skills, declarative knowledge, advanced cognitive skills, interpersonal skills, and personal resourcefulness. Within the advanced cognitive skills domain, 21 themes were perceived to guide the behaviors of surgeons: 18 for surgical planning and error prevention, and 3 for error/injury recognition, rescue, and recovery. The application of these thought patterns was highly case-specific and variable amongst subspecialties, environments, and individuals. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a comprehensive definition of intraoperative expertise, with greater insight into the complex cognitive processes that seem to underlie optimal performance. This framework provides trainees and other nonexperts with the necessary information to use in deliberate practice and the creation of effective thought habits that characterize expert performance. It may help to identify gaps in performance, and to isolate root causes of surgical errors with the ultimate goal of improving patient safety.

A Review of Techniques Used in the Management of Growing Skull Fractures.

BACKGROUND: Growing skull fractures (GSFs) are rare complications of pediatric head trauma that comprise skull fractures associated with an underlying dural tear and an intact arachnoid membrane. They are often misdiagnosed, and delay in management can lead to progression of the disease along with its neurological sequelae. Multiple clinical reports and qualitative reviews on this entity exist. To our knowledge, this represents the largest clinical review reporting on established techniques in the management of these fractures. METHODS: A literature search was performed on the databases Embase, Medline, Cochrane, and PubMed from their inception until February 2015 using the terms "Growing," "Skull," "Fracture," and their equivalent terms. Studies included were case series with 5 or more patients describing GSFs and their management. RESULTS: Twenty-two articles reporting 440 patients were included in the analysis. The mean age at trauma was 8.8 months, with the mean at presentation of 21.9 months and 57.8% of the patients being males. Most commonly, a combined dura-cranioplasty was done in 61.6% of the patients. A range of autoplastic and alloplastic materials were used in both of these techniques. Improvement from preoperative clinical status in seizures and neurological deficits was noted in 18 (12.7%) and 11 (7.05%) of the patients, respectively, following operative repair and medical management. DISCUSSION: Early recognition is crucial in the management and treatment of GSF. Children at risk for developing GSF should be monitored clinically for up to 3 months following the initial insult. The surgical treatment depends on the size of the fracture and the age of the patient. A summary of the presentation, management, associated outcomes, complications, and recommendations discussed in the literature are reported within.

A Review of Tissue Expansion-Assisted Techniques of Cleft Palate Repair.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this report was to examine current knowledge of use of tissue expansion techniques to assist cleft palate repair and to review and contrast various techniques reported. METHODS: Two separate literature searches were conducted in the Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Medline and Embase databases, from database inception until December 2014 for use of mucoperiosteal expansion (MPE) and distraction osteogenesis (DO) in cleft palate repair. RESULTS: Six articles, reporting a total of 51 patients of palatal MPE, were identified for discussion and analysis. Three different MPE techniques in primary cleft palate repair were described: intraoperative rapid expansion, tumescent injections, and a 2-stage repair with an osmotic expander. Average fistula rate was 26.19%. The search for use of DO on palatal clefts revealed 6 animal models, a finite element analysis study, and 1 case report. Moreover, 2 patients were reported of the use of DO to assist in secondary palatal fistula closure. No fistula rate could be calculated due to the heterogeneity of the data. CONCLUSIONS: The experience with MPE in assisting cleft palate repair remains limited. Among expansion techniques, the use of osmotic expanders was associated with the highest rates of postoperative fistulae. The literature provides little evidence supporting the efficacy of MPE expansion in cleft palate repair. The majority of studies utilizing DO to assist primary cleft palate repair are in animal models with the exception of isolated case reports in human subjects. Although limited, the results demonstrate promise and the need for further research in this domain.

Defining Cognitive Competencies for Breast Augmentation Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Breast augmentation is the most performed aesthetic procedure in the United States yet one that surgical trainees have limited exposure to. This creates a lack of confidence in performing this key procedure among graduates. It is imperative to develop novel curricula and objective measures to standardize acquiring competency. OBJECTIVE: This qualitative study establishes various cognitive competencies and pitfalls in augmentation mammoplasty. METHODS: Using a priori established task analysis, literary sources and operative observations, a total of 20 cognitive vignettes were developed to conduct cognitive task analyses (CTA) for breast augmentation through semistructured interviews of experts. Interviews were itemized, and verbal data were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and thematically analyzed by reviewers. RESULTS: Eight experts were interviewed (median age 39 years, 87.5% males, with a median of 7 years in practice). A conceptual framework for breast augmentation was developed and divided into 5 operative stages containing 208 competencies and 41 pitfalls. Pitfalls were mapped to deficits in shared decision making, proper informed consent, prospective hemostasis, and awareness of anatomical landmarks and markings. CONCLUSIONS: This work provided an inclusive framework of cognitive competencies in breast augmentation surgery to facilitate their assessment. This model guides the analysis of other procedures to transfer cognitive competencies to learners. In a transition toward competency-based education, this provides a primer to assessments that include all aspects of a surgeon's skill set.

Unblinding de Quervain: A systematic review of ultrasound-guided injection of corticosteroids for treatment of stenosing tenosynovitis of the 1st extensor compartment.

A systematic review was conducted on studies reporting steroid injections with ultrasound for de Quervain. From 10 studies included and 379 wrists, 73.9% reported complete resolution of symptoms, 18.2% with partial and 7.9% without resolution. When compared to the landmark-guided technique, ultrasound guidance showed significantly higher rates of symptom resolution (P = 0.0132) and lower pain scores (P < 0.0001). Twenty-nine patients out of 163 who initially showed complete resolution of symptoms reported subsequent recurrence. We conclude that steroid injections guided by ultrasound present high rates of symptomatic relief through precise needle insertion, especially in cases of anatomic variability with subcompartments.

Teaching and Assessing Cognitive Competencies in Aesthetic and Plastic Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Cognition, part of surgical competence, employs forward planning, error prevention, and orchestration of technical skills. Thus, an understanding of mental processes used by experts throughout patient care is essential to teaching such competencies. The authors' study aimed to analyze and compare mental models of two distinct procedures in plastic surgery-breast augmentation and flexor tendon repair-to develop a framework to define cognitive competencies in plastic surgery aided by a review of the literature. METHODS: Based on data from a priori cognitive task analyses, literary sources, and field observations of breast augmentation surgery and flexor tendon repair, task lists were produced for each procedure. Two mental models were developed using fuzzy logic cognitive maps to visually illustrate and analyze cognitive processes used in either procedure. A comparison of the models aided by literature was used to define the cognitive competencies employed, identify differences in the decision-making process, and provide a guiding framework for understanding cognitive competencies. RESULTS: Five distinct cognitive competency domains were identified from the literature applicable to plastic surgery: situation awareness, decision-making, task management, leadership, and communication and teamwork. Differences in processes of decision-making utilized between an elective and a trauma setting were identified. A framework to map cognitive competencies within a generic mental model in surgical care was synthesized, and methods were suggested for training on such competencies. CONCLUSION: Cognitive competencies in different settings in plastic surgery are introduced using a comparative study of two mental models of distinct procedures to guide the teaching and assessment of such competencies.

Aesthetic Limitations in Direct-to-Implant Prepectoral Breast Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Prepectoral direct-to-implant reconstruction has become an alternative to staged subpectoral expander-based reconstruction. Although the surgical safety of this technique has been shown, aesthetic limitations have not been well-described. This article reports aesthetic limitations and elucidates risk factors that may predispose patients toward developing unfavorable outcomes following direct-to-implant prepectoral breast reconstruction. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was performed, identifying patients who underwent prepectoral, direct-to-implant breast reconstruction from June of 2016 to June of 2019. Aesthetic limitations assessed included capsular contracture, rippling, implant malposition, and implant flipping. RESULTS: Two hundred twenty-four consecutive women representing 334 breasts underwent immediate reconstruction performed by a single plastic surgeon. A midlateral incision was used in 185 breasts (55.4 percent) and the Wise pattern in 95 breasts (28.8 percent). The mean follow-up time was 30.5 months (45.3 to 18.3 months). Significant capsular contracture (grade 3 to 4) was noted in 27 breasts (8.1 percent), implant flipping in four breasts (1.2 percent), implant displacement in five breasts (1.5 percent), major rippling in nine breasts (2.7 percent), and minor rippling in 17 breasts (5.1 percent). The use of acellular dermal matrix had no significant effect on the aesthetic outcomes. In comparing breasts with postmastectomy radiation, there was a significant difference in the presence of minor rippling and capsular contracture ( p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This cohort represents the largest, single-surgeon, direct-to-implant prepectoral database in the literature. This report shows that aesthetic limitations were comparable to those seen with other forms of reconstruction. Complications did not differ in terms of acellular dermal matrix use. Certain factors can predispose patients to developing unfavorable aesthetic outcomes. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

Prospective Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Early Protected Movement and Splinting for Fifth Metacarpal Neck Fracture.

BACKGROUND: Fifth metacarpal neck fractures account for 20% of all hand fractures, yet there remains debate with respect to management, particularly when conservative treatment is initiated. The objective of this study is to compare functional and patient-reported outcomes (PROs) in patients treated with early protected movement or splint immobilization. METHODS: This national multicenter prospective randomized controlled trial compared 2 groups; elastic bandage with early protected movement versus immobilization with splinting. Demographic characteristics were collected at baseline. Functional outcomes (grip strength testing) and PROs (Brief Michigan Hand Questionnaire [bMHQ]) were collected at 4, 8, and 12 weeks post-intervention. Grip strength values of the injured hand were normalized to both the non-injured hand (at baseline), and the Canadian reference values. RESULTS: Thirty-seven participants from 5 Canadian centers were randomized into the splint (n = 21) or elastic bandage group (n = 16). There were no significant differences in the bMHQ score between the splint (52.1 ± 27.2) or the elastic bandage (46.6 ± 20.4) groups (P = .51). There were no differences in baseline grip strength between the splint (15.3 ± 8.9 kg) and elastic bandage (19.9 ± 7.5 kg) groups. At 8 weeks, the elastic bandage group had a significantly higher grip strength than the splint group (93% vs 64%, respectively: P < .05), when standardized as a percentage of the Canadian reference values. CONCLUSION: Patients with Boxer's fractures treated with early protected movement had better functional outcomes by 8 weeks post-treatment as compared to the Canadian reference values of those treated with immobilization and splinting. Providers should manage Boxer's fractures with early protected movement.

RENSEIGNEMENTS GÉNÉRAUX: Les fractures du col du cinquième métacarpien représentent 20 % de toutes les fractures de la main, mais leur prise en charge ne fait pas l'unanimité, en particulier lorsqu'un traitement classique est instauré. L'objectif de cette étude consiste à comparer les résultats fonctionnels et les résultats déclarés par le patient traité au moyen d'une protection contre le mouvement instaurée de manière précoce ou d'une attelle pourimmobilization. MÉTHODOLOGIE: Cet essai multicentrique, national, prospectif, contrôlé et mené à répartition aléatoire a comparé 2 groupes recevant les traitements suivants: un bandage élastique et une protection contre le mouvement instaurée de manière précoce, d'une part, et une attelle pourimmobilization, d'autre part. Les caractéristiques démographiques ont été recueillies au début de l'étude. Les résultats fonctionnels (épreuve de force de préhension) et les résultats déclarés par le patient (questionnaire bMHQ [Brief Michigan Hand Questionnaire], question bref de Michigan portant sur les mains) ont été recueillis 4, 8 et 12 semaines après l'intervention. Les valeurs de la force de préhension de la main blessée ont été normalisées en fonction à la fois de la main non blessée (au départ) et des valeurs de référence canadiennes. RÉSULTATS: Trente-sept participants de cinq centres canadiens ont été répartis aléatoirement dans le groupe traité au moyen d'une attelle (n = 21) ou celui traité par un bandage élastique (n = 16). Aucune différence significative sur le plan du score bMHQ n'a été observé entre les groupes traité au moyen d'une attelle (52,1 ± 27,2) ou d'un bandage élastique (46,6 ± 20,4; P = .51). Il n'y avait aucune différence au chapitre de la force de préhension initiale entre le groupe traité au moyen d'une attelle (15,3 ± 8,9 kg) et celui traité par un bandage élastique (19,9 ± 7,5 kg). Après huit semaines, le groupe traité par un bandage élastique présentait une force de préhension significativement plus élevée que celle du groupe traité au moyen d'une attelle (93 % contre 64 %, respectivement: P < .05), après la normalizationdes valeurs en pourcentage par rapport aux valeurs de référence canadiennes. CONCLUSION: Les patients subissant une « fracture du boxeur ¼ traités au moyen d'une protection contre le mouvement instaurée de manière précoce obtenaient de meilleurs résultats fonctionnels huit semaines après le traitement, vis-à-vis des valeurs de référence canadiennes, que ceux traités par une attelle pourimmobilization. Les professionnels de la santé devraient donc prendre en charge les fractures de boxeur au moyen d'une protection contre le mouvement instaurée de manière précoce.

Toward Competency-Based Training: To What Extent Are We Competency-Based?

BACKGROUND: Time-based training models in plastic surgery vary in exposure, resulting in low confidence levels among graduates. The evolution of postgraduate medical education into a competency-based model to address these issues requires an understanding of interventions described in the plastic surgery literature to identify gaps and guide creation of assessments to demonstrate competence. METHODS: A systematic search of the MEDLINE, Embase, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, PubMed, and Cochrane databases from inception until December of 2017 was conducted using search terms and synonyms of educational interventions reported in plastic surgery. Full texts were retrieved following filtering and data extracted were related to intervention design and execution, involvement of competency assessment, and educational objectives and alignment to Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education competencies and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada Canadian Medical Education Directives for Specialists roles. Study quality was assessed using Kirkpatrick's levels of learning evaluation, validity evidence, and the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument score. RESULTS: Of the initial 4307 results, only 36 interventions met the inclusion criteria. Almost all interventions aligned to medical knowledge and patient care Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education competencies. One-fifth of the interventions involved no assessment of competency, whereas most displayed assessment at the level of design as opposed to outcomes. Quality assessment revealed low levels of learning evaluation and evidence of validity; the average Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument score was 10.9 of 18. CONCLUSION: A systematic review of educational literature in plastic surgery was conducted to assess the quality of reported educational interventions, and to help guide creating tools that ensure competency acquirement among trainees.

Attitudes May Be Hard to Change: Canadian Organ Donors Consider Face and Hand Donation.

Despite the success of composite tissue allograft (CTA) such as face and hand transplant at improving recipients' quality of life, organ donors' hesitation needs to be better understood. The aim of the study was to assess Canadian organ donors' willingness to donate their face and hands, and the efficacy of an educational intervention. METHODS: Canadians registered for organ donation were invited to complete an online survey about CTA. An interactive vignette was introduced part way through to clarify transplant-related concepts, with repeat of questions post-vignette exposure to assess attitudes pliability. RESULTS: A total of 942 participants completed the survey. Fifty-two percent of donors were willing to donate their face after passing, whereas 80% were willing to donate their hands. Reasons to refuse CTA donation included the risk of upsetting their family, having someone look like them, and wanting their body to remain intact. Donors' willingness to donate their face (38%, P < 0.001) and hands (79%, P = 0.67) decreased following vignette exposure. Comparative analysis of our interventional vignette with a similar study where donors' donation readiness increased after an educational intervention revealed that our vignette lacked a strong enough emotional component to positively impact donors' attitude to CTA, and may have exposed participants to alternatives to transplant they were not previously aware of. CONCLUSIONS: Canadian organ donors surveyed were willing to donate their face and hands following death, a willingness reduced after watching our informative vignette. Further qualitative work is required to better understand the educational needs and areas to address to increase donors' acceptance of CTA.

Direct-to-Implant Prepectoral Breast Reconstruction: Patient-Reported Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Direct-to-implant prepectoral breast reconstruction has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity because of its lower levels of postoperative pain and animation deformity. BREAST-Q, a well-validated patient-reported outcomes tool, was used to assess patient satisfaction and quality of life. The goal of this study was to assess patient-reported outcomes at 6-month and 1-year follow-up after direct-to-implant prepectoral breast reconstruction. METHODS: Sixty-nine consented adult patients undergoing a total of 110 direct-to-implant, prepectoral, postmastectomy breast reconstructions completed BREAST-Q questionnaires immediately preoperatively, and at 6 and 12 months thereafter. RESULTS: Mean breast satisfaction decreased nonsignificantly from 61.3 preoperatively to 58.6 at 12 months after reconstruction (p = 0.32). Psychosocial well-being improved nonsignificantly from 67.1 preoperatively to 71.1 at 12-month follow-up (p = 0.26). Physical well-being of the chest was insignificantly different, from 74.4 to 73.3 at 12-month follow-up (p = 0.62). Finally, sexual well-being similarly remained nonsignificantly changed from 60.2 preoperatively, to 59.1 at 12 months (p = 0.80). The use of acellular dermal matrix and postmastectomy radiotherapy did not have any significant effects on patient-reported outcomes. Through regression analysis, neoadjuvant chemotherapy, increased age, and incidence of rippling were found to negatively influence BREAST-Q results. CONCLUSIONS: Patients who underwent direct-to-implant prepectoral breast reconstruction demonstrated an overall satisfaction with their outcomes. As prepectoral breast reconstruction continues to advance and grow in popularity, patient-reported outcomes such as those presented in this study become of paramount importance in practice. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

SMaRT Assessment Tool: An Innovative Approach for Objective Assessment of Flap Designs.

SUMMARY: The teaching and assessment of ideal surgical markings for local flaps required for optimal aesthetic and functional outcomes remain a challenge in the present era of competency-based surgical education. The authors utilized the bilobed flap for nasal reconstruction as a proof of concept for the development of an innovative objective assessment tool based on statistical shape analysis, with a focus on providing automated, evidence-based, objective, specific, and practical feedback to the learner. The proposed tool is based on Procrustes statistical shape analysis, previously used for the assessment of facial asymmetry in plastic surgery. For performance boundary testing, a series of optimal and suboptimal designs generated in deliberate violation of the established ideals of optimal bilobed flap design were evaluated, and a four-component feedback score of Scale, Mismatch, Rotation, and Translation (SMaRT) was generated. The SMaRT assessment tool demonstrated the capacity to proportionally score a spectrum of designs (n = 36) ranging from subtle to significant variations of optimal, with excellent computational and clinically reasonable performance boundaries. In terms of shape mismatch, changes in SMaRT score also correlated with intended violations in designs away from the ideal flap design. This innovative educational approach could aid in incorporating objective feedback in simulation-based platforms in order to facilitate deliberate practice in flap design, with the potential for adoption in other fields of plastic surgery to automate assessment processes.

Skin-Reducing Mastectomy with Immediate Prepectoral Reconstruction: Surgical, Aesthetic, and Patient-Reported Outcomes with and without Dermal Matrices.

BACKGROUND: Prepectoral breast reconstruction is being increasingly popularized, largely because of technical advances. Patients with ptotic breasts and active cancer require mastectomies through a mastopexy excision pattern to achieve proper pocket control in a prepectoral single-stage operation. This article presents a single-surgeon experience with direct-to-implant, prepectoral reconstruction following skin-reducing mastectomies. METHODS: A retrospective chart review identified all patients undergoing prepectoral, direct-to-implant breast reconstruction following Wise-pattern mastopexy from June of 2016 to June of 2018. Surgical and aesthetic outcomes, including capsular contracture and revision surgery, were measured. The BREAST-Q was administered preoperatively, 6 months postoperatively, and 1 year postoperatively. RESULTS: Eighty-four patients (121 breasts) were included. A widely based inframammary fold adipodermal flap was used in all cases, with acellular dermal matrix used in 77 breasts (63.3 percent), free nipple grafts in 42 breasts (34.7 percent), and postmastectomy radiation therapy in 31 breasts (26.5 percent). Operative complications included nipple-areola complex necrosis in six (5.1 percent), hematoma in four (3.4 percent), seroma in four (3.4 percent), implant exposure in three (2.6 percent), and infection in one (0.9 percent). Minor complications included cellulitis in five (6.0 percent) and minor wound issues in five (4.3 percent). In aesthetic outcomes, only two nonirradiated breasts experienced a grade 3 to 4 or grade 4 capsular contracture requiring capsulectomy. Rippling was visible in four breasts (3.4 percent). The BREAST-Q showed good satisfaction with the technique, with no significant differences between nipple-areola complex techniques. CONCLUSIONS: This cohort represents the largest single-surgeon, Wise-pattern, direct-to-implant prepectoral database in the literature. This report showed that surgical and aesthetic complications did not differ in terms of acellular dermal matrix use. This technique has shown, through patient-reported outcomes, to yield good patient satisfaction. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, III.

The Role of Resident-Run Clinics for Aesthetic Surgery Training in the Context of Competency-based Plastic Surgery Education.

Resident-run clinics (RRCs) have been suggested as a clinical teaching tool to improve resident exposure in aesthetic plastic surgery education. In exchange for reduced cost aesthetic services, RRCs offer trainees the opportunity to assess, plan, execute, and follow surgical procedures in an independent yet supervised manner. With the transition into a competency-based medical education model involving a switch away from a time-based into a milestones-based model, the role of RRCs, within the context of the evolving plastic surgery curriculum has yet to be determined. To that end, the present study summarizes current models of aesthetic surgery training and assesses RRCs as an adjunct to aesthetics education within the framework of competency-based medical education. Explored themes include advantages and issues of RRCs including surgical autonomy, feasibility, exposure, learners' perception, ethics, and quality improvement. In addition, attention is focused on their role in cognitive competency acquisition and exposure to non-surgical techniques. RRCs are considered an effective educational model that provides an autonomous learning platform with reasonable patient satisfaction and safety profiles.

Use of Decision Analysis and Economic Evaluation in Breast Reconstruction: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Decision analysis allows clinicians to compare different strategies in the context of uncertainty, through explicit and quantitative measures such as quality of life outcomes and costing data. This is especially important in breast reconstruction, where multiple strategies can be offered to patients. This systematic review aims to appraise and review the different decision analytic models used in breast reconstruction. METHODS: A search of English articles in PubMed, Ovid, and Embase databases was performed. All articles regardless of date of publishing were considered. Two reviewers independently assessed each article, based on strict inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Out of 442 articles identified, 27 fit within the inclusion criteria. These were then grouped according to aspects of breast reconstruction, with implant-based reconstruction (n = 13) being the most commonly reported. Decision analysis (n = 19) and/or economic analyses (n = 27) were employed to discuss reconstructive options. The most common outcome was cost (n = 27). The decision analysis models compared and contrasted surgical strategies, management options, and novel adjuncts. CONCLUSIONS: Decision analysis in breast reconstruction is growing exponentially.The most common model used was a simple decision tree. Models published were of high quality but could be improved with a more in-depth sensitivity analysis. It is essential for surgeons to familiarize themselves with the concept of decision analysis to better tackle complicated decisions, due to its intrinsic advantage of being able to weigh risks and benefits of multiple strategies while using probabilistic models.

Direct-to-Implant, Prepectoral Breast Reconstruction: A Single-Surgeon Experience with 201 Consecutive Patients.

BACKGROUND: The resurgence of prepectoral breast reconstruction has brought strict patient inclusion and exclusion criteria by numerous authors. This article provides an overview of a single surgeon's experience with 201 patients, 313 breasts using immediate, direct-to-implant prepectoral breast reconstruction. The article compares surgical outcomes of different patient cohorts to elucidate risk factors that may predispose patients toward developing complications. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was performed, identifying all patients who underwent prepectoral, direct-to-implant breast reconstruction from June of 2016 to June of 2018. RESULTS: A total of 201 patients representing 313 breasts were included. A midlateral incision was used in 157 breasts (50.2 percent), followed by a skin-reducing, Wise-pattern in 90 breasts (28.8 percent). Acellular dermal matrix was used in 243 breasts (77.6 percent), free nipple grafts were used in 39 breasts (12.5 percent), and postmastectomy radiation therapy was used in 58 breasts (18.5 percent). Complications requiring operative intervention occurred in 24 breasts (7.7 percent), and minor complications occurred in 23 breasts (7.3 percent). There were no significant differences in complication rates for (1) acellular dermal matrix use versus non-acellular dermal matrix use, (2) Wise-pattern versus other incision, or (3) postmastectomy radiotherapy (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This represents the largest single-surgeon, direct-to-implant prepectoral cohort in the literature. Surgical complications did not differ with acellular dermal matrix use, incision selection, and the use of postmastectomy radiation therapy. There may be an association between acellular dermal matrix use and major complications and radiotherapy with minor complications. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, III.

Death by Implants: Critical Analysis of the FDA-MAUDE Database on Breast Implant-related Mortality.

Since the 1992 moratorium by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the debate on the association of breast implants with systemic illnesses has been ongoing. Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma has also raised significant safety concerns in recent years. METHODS: A systematic search of the Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience (MAUDE) database was performed to identify all cases of breast implant-associated deaths reported to the FDA. RESULTS: The search identified 50 reported cases of apparent implant-related mortality; breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma comprised the majority of fatal outcomes (n = 21, 42%), followed by lymphoma (n = 4, 8%), breast cancer (n = 3, 6%), pancreatic cancer (n = 2, 4%), implant rupture (n = 2, 4%), and postoperative infections (n = 2, 4%). Single cases (n = 1, 2% each) of leukemia, small bowel cancer, lung disease, pneumonia, autoimmune and joint disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, liver failure, and sudden death, and 2 cases (4%) of newborn deaths, to mothers with breast implants, were also identified. A literature review demonstrated that 54% of alleged implant-related deaths were not truly associated with breast implant use: the majority of these reports (82%) originated from the public and third-party sources, rather than evidence-based reports by health-care professionals and journal articles. CONCLUSIONS: Although there exists a need for more comprehensive reporting in federal databases, the information available should be considered for a more complete understanding of implant-associated adverse outcomes. With only 46% of FDA-reported implant-related deaths demonstrated to be truly associated with breast implant use, there exists a need for public awareness and education on breast implant safety.

Nonbiological Microsurgery Simulators in Plastic Surgery Training: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Simulation has gained notable recognition for its role as an effective training and assessment modality in the present era of competency-based medical education. Despite the well-documented efficacy of both live and cadaveric animal models, several ethical, financial, and accessibility issues persist with their use. Lower fidelity nonbiological simulators have gained recognition for their ability to circumvent these challenges. This systematic review reports on all prosthetic and virtual reality simulators in use for microsurgery training, with an emphasis on each model's complexity, characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, and validation measures taken. METHODS: A systematic search was performed using the National Library of Medicine (PubMed), MEDLINE, and Embase databases. Search terms were those pertaining to prosthetic and virtual reality models with relevance to microsurgical training in plastic surgery. Three independent reviewers evaluated all articles retrieved based on strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. RESULTS: Fifty-seven articles met the inclusion criteria for review, reporting on 20 basic prosthetic models, 20 intermediate models, 13 advanced models, and six virtual reality simulators. CONCLUSIONS: A comprehensive summary has been compiled of all nonbiological simulators in use for microsurgery training in plastic surgery, demonstrating efficacy for the acquisition and retention of microsurgical skills. Metrics-based validation efforts, however, were often lacking in the literature. As plastic surgery programs continue to innovate, ensure accountability, and safely meet today's training standards, prosthetic simulators are set to play a larger role in the development of a standardized, ethical, accessible, and objectively measurable microsurgery training curriculum for the modern-day plastic and reconstructive surgery resident.