Looking Through the Lens of 'Omics Technologies: Insights Into the Transmission of Insect Vector-borne Plant Viruses.

Insects in the orders Hemiptera and Thysanoptera transmit viruses and other pathogens associated with the most serious diseases of plants. Plant viruses transmitted by these insects target similar tissues, genes, and proteins within the insect to facilitate plant-to-plant transmission with some degree of specificity at the molecular level. 'Omics experiments are becoming increasingly important and practical for vector biologists to use towards better understanding the molecular mechanisms and biochemistry underlying transmission of these insect-borne diseases. These discoveries are being used to develop novel means to obstruct virus transmission into and between plants. In this chapter, we summarize 'omics technologies commonly applied in vector biology and the important discoveries that have been made using these methods, including virus and insect proteins involved in transmission, as well as the tri-trophic interactions involved in host and vector manipulation. Finally, we critically examine the limitations and new horizons in this area of research, including the role of endosymbionts and insect viruses in virus-vector interactions, and the development of novel control strategies.

Host Plants Indirectly Influence Plant Virus Transmission by Altering Gut Cysteine Protease Activity of Aphid Vectors.

The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, is a vector of the Potato leafroll virus (PLRV, Luteoviridae), transmitted exclusively by aphids in a circulative manner. PLRV transmission efficiency was significantly reduced when a clonal lineage of M. persicae was reared on turnip as compared with the weed physalis, and this was a transient effect caused by a host-switch response. A trend of higher PLRV titer in physalis-reared aphids as compared with turnip-reared aphids was observed at 24 h and 72 h after virus acquisition. The major difference in the proteomes of these aphids was the up-regulation of predicted lysosomal enzymes, in particular the cysteine protease cathepsin B (cathB), in aphids reared on turnip. The aphid midgut is the site of PLRV acquisition, and cathB and PLRV localization were starkly different in midguts of the aphids reared on the two host plants. In viruliferous aphids that were reared on turnip, there was near complete colocalization of cathB and PLRV at the cell membranes, which was not observed in physalis-reared aphids. Chemical inhibition of cathB restored the ability of aphids reared on turnip to transmit PLRV in a dose-dependent manner, showing that the increased activity of cathB and other cysteine proteases at the cell membrane indirectly decreased virus transmission by aphids. Understanding how the host plant influences virus transmission by aphids is critical for growers to manage the spread of virus among field crops.

Visualization of Host-Polerovirus Interaction Topologies Using Protein Interaction Reporter Technology.

UNLABELLED: Demonstrating direct interactions between host and virus proteins during infection is a major goal and challenge for the field of virology. Most protein interactions are not binary or easily amenable to structural determination. Using infectious preparations of a polerovirus (Potato leafroll virus [PLRV]) and protein interaction reporter (PIR), a revolutionary technology that couples a mass spectrometric-cleavable chemical cross-linker with high-resolution mass spectrometry, we provide the first report of a host-pathogen protein interaction network that includes data-derived, topological features for every cross-linked site that was identified. We show that PLRV virions have hot spots of protein interaction and multifunctional surface topologies, revealing how these plant viruses maximize their use of binding interfaces. Modeling data, guided by cross-linking constraints, suggest asymmetric packing of the major capsid protein in the virion, which supports previous epitope mapping studies. Protein interaction topologies are conserved with other species in the Luteoviridae and with unrelated viruses in the Herpesviridae and Adenoviridae. Functional analysis of three PLRV-interacting host proteins in planta using a reverse-genetics approach revealed a complex, molecular tug-of-war between host and virus. Structural mimicry and diversifying selection-hallmarks of host-pathogen interactions-were identified within host and viral binding interfaces predicted by our models. These results illuminate the functional diversity of the PLRV-host protein interaction network and demonstrate the usefulness of PIR technology for precision mapping of functional host-pathogen protein interaction topologies. IMPORTANCE: The exterior shape of a plant virus and its interacting host and insect vector proteins determine whether a virus will be transmitted by an insect or infect a specific host. Gaining this information is difficult and requires years of experimentation. We used protein interaction reporter (PIR) technology to illustrate how viruses exploit host proteins during plant infection. PIR technology enabled our team to precisely describe the sites of functional virus-virus, virus-host, and host-host protein interactions using a mass spectrometry analysis that takes just a few hours. Applications of PIR technology in host-pathogen interactions will enable researchers studying recalcitrant pathogens, such as animal pathogens where host proteins are incorporated directly into the infectious agents, to investigate how proteins interact during infection and transmission as well as develop new tools for interdiction and therapy.

Genetic characterization of the Neurospora crassa molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis.

Molybdenum (Mo) is a trace element that is essential for important cellular processes. To gain biological activity, Mo must be complexed in the molybdenum cofactor (Moco), a pterin derivative of low molecular weight. Moco synthesis is a multi-step pathway that involves a variable number of genes in eukaryotes, which are assigned to four steps of eukaryotic Moco biosynthesis. Moco biosynthesis mutants lack any Moco-dependent enzymatic activities, including assimilation of nitrate (plants and fungi), detoxification of sulfite (humans and plants) and utilization of hypoxanthine as sole N-source (fungi). We report the first comprehensive genetic characterization of the Neurospora crassa (N. crassa) Moco biosynthesis pathway, annotating five genes which encode all pathway enzymes, and compare it with the characterized Aspergillus nidulans pathway. Biochemical characterization of the corresponding knock-out mutants confirms our annotation model, documenting the N. crassa/A. nidulans (fungal) Moco biosynthesis as unique, combining the organizational structure of both plant and human Moco biosynthesis genes.

Insights in luteovirid structural biology guided by chemical cross-linking and high resolution mass spectrometry.

Interactions among plant pathogenic viruses in the family Luteoviridae and their plant hosts and insect vectors are governed by the topology of the viral capsid, which is the sole vehicle for long distance movement of the viral genome. Previous application of a mass spectrometry-compatible cross-linker to preparations of the luteovirid Potato leafroll virus (PLRV; Luteoviridae: Polerovirus) revealed a detailed network of interactions between viral structural proteins and enabled generation of the first cross-linking guided coat protein models. In this study, we extended application of chemical cross-linking technology to the related Turnip yellows virus (TuYV; Luteoviridae: Polerovirus). Remarkably, all cross-links found between sites in the viral coat protein found for TuYV were also found in PLRV. Guided by these data, we present two models for the TuYV coat protein trimer, the basic structural unit of luteovirid virions. Additional cross-links found between the TuYV coat protein and a site in the viral protease domain suggest a possible role for the luteovirid protease in regulating the structural biology of these viruses.