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Social relationships are an important driver of health, and inflammation has been proposed as a key neurobiological mechanism to explain this effect. Behavioral researchers have focused on social relationship quality to further explain the association, yet recent research indicates that relationship quality may not be as robust a predictor as previously thought. Here, building on animal models of social bonds and recent theory on close relationships, we instead investigated merely being in the physical presence of one's romantic partner. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that spending more time co-present with a loved partner in everyday life would be associated with lower C-reactive protein (CRP). Three times over the course of one month, 100 people in romantic relationships reported how much time they spent in the same physical space as their partner in the prior 24 h, in minutes, and provided a sample of blood for CRP assay (n observations = 296). Results from multi-level models showed that when one reported spending more time in the physical presence of their partner they had lower CRP - an effect that was independent from social relationship quality explanations from the prior literature, including romantic relationship quality, hostility, and loneliness. These findings move past global assessments of social isolation to consider a novel everyday behavior that is of great interest in the non-human animal literature - spending time together -- as a potential mechanism linking high-quality relationships and physical health in adult humans. The findings also point to future research on additional behavioral mechanisms that are not dependent on stress pathways: people in high-quality relationships tend to spend enjoyable and affectionate time with one another, which may impact inflammation.
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Proteína C-Reativa , Solidão , Humanos , Isolamento SocialRESUMO
OBJECTIVE: Individual differences in attachment insecurity can have important implications for experiences of positive emotions. However, existing research on the link between attachment insecurity and positive emotional experiences has typically used a composite measure of positive emotions, overlooking the potential importance of differentiating discrete emotions. METHOD: We conducted a meta-analysis of 10 cross-sectional samples (N = 3215), examining how attachment insecurity is associated with self-reported frequency of experiencing positive emotions, with a distinction made between more social (i.e., love and gratitude) and less social (i.e., peace and awe or curiosity) positive emotions. RESULTS: High (vs. low) levels of both attachment anxiety and avoidance were associated with less frequent experience of positive emotions regardless of their social relevance. When analyzing each emotion separately, we found that attachment anxiety showed negative relations to all emotions except gratitude. Attachment avoidance was negatively associated with all emotions, and the link was even stronger with love (vs. peace, awe, or curiosity). Additional analyses of daily diary data revealed that attachment anxiety and avoidance were also negatively associated with daily experiences of positive emotions, regardless of social relevance. CONCLUSION: Our results underscore the need to further investigate the mechanisms underlying insecure individuals' blunted positive emotional experiences.
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Emoções , Apego ao Objeto , Humanos , Estudos Transversais , Ansiedade/psicologia , AutorrelatoRESUMO
In this research, we tested hypotheses about the role of oxytocin in adult human bonding. Inspired by revisiting the research on pair bonding in microtine voles that fueled psychologists' interest in the role of oxytocin in social life, we drew on recent theory from affective and relationship science to identify a well-defined bonding context for human romantic relationships. We then paired these behaviors and subjective psychological responses with a measure of naturally circulating oxytocin. In 129 romantically involved adults whose partner expressed gratitude to them in the lab, greater oxytocin over the prior 24 hr was associated with greater perceptions of the expresser's responsiveness and gratitude, as well as greater experienced love, but not general affective reward. Moreover, in this one-time conversation, higher oxytocin acted like rose-colored glasses, attenuating the effect of a partner's behaviorally coded expressive behavior on perceptions of the expresser's responsiveness. These results justify future research on the role of oxytocin in psychological aspects of growth processes.
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Relações Interpessoais , Amor , Apego ao Objeto , Ocitocina/sangue , Parceiros Sexuais/psicologia , Comportamento Social , Percepção Social , Adolescente , Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Adulto JovemRESUMO
To identify molecular mechanisms underlying the prospective health advantages associated with psychological well-being, we analyzed leukocyte basal gene expression profiles in 80 healthy adults who were assessed for hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, as well as potentially confounded negative psychological and behavioral factors. Hedonic and eudaimonic well-being showed similar affective correlates but highly divergent transcriptome profiles. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from people with high levels of hedonic well-being showed up-regulated expression of a stress-related conserved transcriptional response to adversity (CTRA) involving increased expression of proinflammatory genes and decreased expression of genes involved in antibody synthesis and type I IFN response. In contrast, high levels of eudaimonic well-being were associated with CTRA down-regulation. Promoter-based bioinformatics implicated distinct patterns of transcription factor activity in structuring the observed differences in gene expression associated with eudaimonic well-being (reduced NF-κB and AP-1 signaling and increased IRF and STAT signaling). Transcript origin analysis identified monocytes, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, and B lymphocytes as primary cellular mediators of these dynamics. The finding that hedonic and eudaimonic well-being engage distinct gene regulatory programs despite their similar effects on total well-being and depressive symptoms implies that the human genome may be more sensitive to qualitative variations in well-being than are our conscious affective experiences.
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Redes Reguladoras de Genes/genética , Genoma Humano/genética , Felicidade , Modelos Psicológicos , Prazer , Qualidade de Vida/psicologia , Adulto , Anticorpos/genética , Anticorpos/metabolismo , Biologia Computacional , Humanos , Interferon Tipo I/genética , Interferon Tipo I/metabolismo , Leucócitos Mononucleares , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , North Carolina , Inquéritos e Questionários , Fator de Transcrição AP-1/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , TranscriptomaRESUMO
Considering the role of responsiveness in interpersonal processes has opened new frontiers for the science of gratitude. This article focuses on how responsive behavior feeds into experiences of gratitude, and how the emotion of gratitude provides fuel to catalyze perceptions of the grateful person's responsiveness, not only to the kind benefactor but also to incidental witnesses. We discuss the implications of a likely growth cycle of mutual responsiveness for dyads and groups. Then we turn to critical next steps for theory and application regarding gratitude, based on understanding of responsiveness in relationships.
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Emoções , Relações Interpessoais , Humanos , Comportamento SocialRESUMO
Interparental interactions have an important influence on child well-being and development. Yet prior theory and research have primarily focused on interparental conflict as contributing to child maladjustment, which leaves out the critical question of how interparental positive interactions-such as expressed gratitude, capitalization, and shared laughter-may benefit child growth and development. In this article, we integrate theory and research in family, relationship, and affective science to propose a new framework for understanding how the heretofore underexamined positive interparental interactions influence children: interparental positivity spillover theory (IPST). IPST proposes that, distinct from the influence of conflict, interparental positive interactions spill over into children's experiences in the form of their (a) experience of positive emotions, (b) beneficially altered perceptions of their parents, and (c) emulation of their parents' positive interpersonal behaviors. This spillover is theorized to promote beneficial cognitive, behavioral, social, and physiological outcomes in children in the short term (i.e., immediately after a specific episode of interparental positivity, or on a given day) as well as cumulatively across time. As a framework, IPST generates a host of novel and testable predictions to guide future research, all of which have important implications for the mental health, well-being, and positive development of children and families.
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Recent evidence has documented associations between higher levels of inflammation and social approach behaviors toward close others in laboratory-based tasks. Yet it is unknown if this translates to interactions with close others in daily life. Given that momentary experiences of social connection have both relational and health consequences, this is a critical gap in our knowledge. To address the association between inflammation and momentary social connection experiences in close relationships, 55 participants provided blood samples on two consecutive days, which were assayed for circulating levels of the inflammatory marker interleukin-6 (IL-6). After providing the first blood sample, participants received the annual influenza vaccine as a mild inflammatory challenge. Participants also reported on cognitive, affective, and behavioral indicators of social connection with a specific close other multiple times across the two study days. Results indicated that levels of IL-6 were positively associated with temporally-proximal indicators of momentary social connection with a close other. Specifically, higher levels of IL-6 were associated with greater feelings of comfort from the close other, greater desire to be near them, and higher reported relationship quality. Greater IL-6 reactivity to the vaccine was only associated with increased reported relationship quality. These data add to the existing literature suggesting that higher levels of IL-6 may motivate social approach toward a close other, extending evidence to now include momentary social connection experiences in daily life.
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Vacinas contra Influenza , Interleucina-6 , Humanos , Emoções , Inflamação , Comportamento SocialRESUMO
The mechanisms underlying the association between positive emotions and physical health remain a mystery. We hypothesize that an upward-spiral dynamic continually reinforces the tie between positive emotions and physical health and that this spiral is mediated by people's perceptions of their positive social connections. We tested this overarching hypothesis in a longitudinal field experiment in which participants were randomly assigned to an intervention group that self-generated positive emotions via loving-kindness meditation or to a waiting-list control group. Participants in the intervention group increased in positive emotions relative to those in the control group, an effect moderated by baseline vagal tone, a proxy index of physical health. Increased positive emotions, in turn, produced increases in vagal tone, an effect mediated by increased perceptions of social connections. This experimental evidence identifies one mechanism-perceptions of social connections-through which positive emotions build physical health, indexed as vagal tone. Results suggest that positive emotions, positive social connections, and physical health influence one another in a self-sustaining upward-spiral dynamic.
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Felicidade , Saúde , Frequência Cardíaca/fisiologia , Relações Interpessoais , Meditação/psicologia , Nervo Vago/fisiologia , Adulto , Emoções/fisiologia , Feminino , Análise de Fourier , Humanos , Amor , Masculino , Apoio SocialRESUMO
In basic psychological needs theory (BPNT), the separable constructs of need satisfaction and need frustration are theorized as pivotally related to psychopathology and broader aspects of well-being. The Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scales (BPNSFS; Chen et al., 2015) have rapidly emerged as the dominant self-report measure in the BPNT domain, with translated versions available in a wide range of languages and a plethora of versions adapted for specific populations and life contexts. Through (a) an extended conceptual discussion of the BPNSFS and (b) a collection of complementary data analyses in eight samples, we demonstrate that the BPNSFS probably does not validly measure need frustration. Most importantly, we conclude that the ostensible distinction between need frustration and need satisfaction in the BPNSFS is likely primarily a method artifact caused by different item keying directions, given the way the measure currently assesses the intended constructs. If so, then the use of the BPNSFS may be generating misleading conclusions, obstructing sound investigation of current BPNT. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Frustração , Autonomia Pessoal , Humanos , Satisfação Pessoal , Autorrelato , Teoria PsicológicaRESUMO
Several lines of research document various relational and personal benefits of gratitude and its key behavioral manifestation, expressed gratitude. Integrating these lines, we propose the three-factorial interpersonal emotions (TIE) analytical framework, using two directions of gratitude behavior-expression and receipt of the expression-perspectives of both individuals reporting those behaviors-the acting self and the observing partner-and two temporal scopes to examine gratitude-the dispositional and the situational (operationalized as one's 2-week average thanking behavior and daily variations around the average, respectively). These describe eight (2 × 2 × 2) prototypical aspects of behavioral manifestations of interpersonal emotions such as expressed gratitude. We demonstrate the TIE model using a well-powered dyadic daily-diary dataset of naturally emerging gratitude interactions within romantic couples. Results show all aspects of situational gratitude behavior uniquely forecast daily increases in relationship satisfaction; these effects mediate contemporaneous daily increases in life satisfaction, and are not attributable to self-disclosure, fairness, politeness, or general positivity. Alternatively, although they each show a zero-order effect, many aspects of dispositional gratitude behavior do not exert independent effects on relationship or life satisfaction, nor do they hold against the four nongratitude constructs. Exemplifying the utility of the TIE model, we conclude behavioral gratitude is an everyday phenomenon; it comprises related yet distinguishable interpersonal acts, and can be understood from the different perspectives of the actors involved. Methodologically, our work shows the value of bringing relationship-science techniques to study the social functions of emotions, and generates new questions about gratitude in everyday life. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Emoções , Relações Interpessoais , Humanos , Satisfação Pessoal , Percepção Social , PersonalidadeRESUMO
Affectionate touch is an important behavior in close relationships throughout the lifespan. Research has investigated the relational and individual psychological and physical benefits of affectionate touch, but the situational factors that give rise to it have been overlooked. Theorizing from the interpersonal process model of intimacy, the current studies tested whether perceived partner responsiveness forecasts affectionate touch in romantic couples. Following a preliminary integrative data analysis (N = 842), three prospective studies use ecologically valid behavioral (Studies 1 and 2) and daily (Studies 2 and 3) data, showing a positive association between perceived partner responsiveness and affectionate touch. Furthermore, in Study 3, we tested a theoretical extension of the interpersonal process of intimacy, finding that affectionate touch forecasts the partner's perception of the touch-giver's responsiveness the next day. Findings suggest affectionate touch may be an untested mechanism at the heart of the interpersonal process of intimacy.
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Relações Interpessoais , Tato , Humanos , Estudos Prospectivos , Comportamento Sexual/psicologia , Parceiros Sexuais/psicologiaRESUMO
In intimate relationships, greater social approach motivation is associated with a host of personal and relational benefits. Why is this the case? Although previous research suggests approach motivation primarily influences relational outcomes via increased exposure to positive relational events, in this research, based on approach-avoidance motivational theory, we revive the upward reactivity hypothesis, which suggests approach motivation upwardly enhances people's affective and relational experiences in response to positive social events. Specifically, we hypothesized that people with greater social approach motivation would react more positively to positively valenced interactions with their partner, and that this would occur even when accounting for their global levels of key outcomes. We tested these ideas across three studies. In all three studies, couples first reported their approach motivation toward the relationship, then engaged in a gratitude interaction. In Study 3, participants additionally engaged in a capitalization interaction, and provided nightly reports of positive relational events across the course of 14 days. We found robust support for the upward reactivity hypothesis: In lab-based interactions and in daily life, individuals with greater approach motivation reported enhanced outcomes in response to positive social events. We also found support for upward observability: When individuals were high in approach motivation, their partners observed them as experiencing greater positive emotion during the laboratory interactions. Moreover, we found evidence for upward crossover, as the upward reactivity experienced by people with greater approach motivation indirectly predicted enhanced partner outcomes. These results provide suggestive evidence that approach motivation can make already good relational moments extra sweet. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Relações Interpessoais , Motivação , Humanos , Comportamento Sexual , Parceiros Sexuais/psicologiaRESUMO
Gratitude expressions play a key role in strengthening relationships, suggesting gratitude might promote adaptive responses during teamwork. However, little research has examined gratitude's impact on loose tie relationships (like coworkers), and similarly little research has examined how gratitude impacts physiological stress responding or biological responses more generally. The present research uses an ecologically valid, dyadic teamwork paradigm to test how gratitude expressions impact in vivo physiological challenge and threat stress responding, assessed via a challenge-threat index composed of cardiac output and total peripheral resistance. Compared with a control condition, teammates (n = 190) who were randomly assigned to a gratitude expression manipulation showed improved biological challenge-threat responses while jointly completing an acutely stressful collaborative work task (developing a product pitch), and later while completing an individual performance task (pitching the product). During the collaborative task, gratitude expressions buffered against threat responses; during the individual task, gratitude expressions amplified challenge responses. Analyses of cardiac output (CO) and total peripheral resistance (TPR) aided in determining how cardiac outflow versus vascular constriction/dilation contributed to these effects. The finding that gratitude expressions promote adaptive biological responding at the dyadic level contributes to a growing literature on the social functions of positive emotions and gratitude, specifically. The present results also have wider implications for physiological stress in performance tasks and suggest that workplace gratitude interventions can promote adaptive stress responding in teams. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Emoções , Relações Interpessoais , Humanos , Emoções/fisiologiaRESUMO
Close social connections drive mental and physical health and promote longevity. Positive, other-focused behavior like expressing gratitude may be a key mechanism for increasing close bonds. Existing evidence consistent with this claim is predominantly correlational, likely driven by challenges in causally influencing and sustaining behavior change in the context of ongoing relationships. This 5-week field experiment with daily data from couples provides the first evidence for a brief, low-cost behavioral technique to increase everyday expressed gratitude to a romantic partner. Random assignment to the gratitude expression treatment (GET) increased the amount of time couples spent co-present in everyday life, from the weeks before GET to the weeks after, relative to the control condition. This effect was mediated by the change in expressed gratitude. Voluntary co-presence is an important behavioral indicator of close bonds in non-human animals. Further analyses with a functional genotype related to the oxytocin system (rs6449182) suggest a neurochemical pathway involved in the effects of expressing gratitude. Together, this evidence bridges animal and human research on bonding behavior and sets up future experiments on biopsychosocial mechanisms linking close bonds to health.
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Emoções , Relações Interpessoais , Humanos , Intenção , Apego ao Objeto , Parceiros Sexuais/psicologiaRESUMO
The transition to parenthood can be a challenging time for new parent couples, as a baby comes with changes and stress that can negatively influence new parents' relational functioning in the form of reduced relationship satisfaction and disrupted partner social support. Yet, the transition to parenthood is also often experienced as a joyous time. In this research, we draw on the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions to suggest that new parents' positive emotions are not merely an enjoyable distraction, but are instead central to their relational adjustment. Specifically, we hypothesized that new parents who experienced greater positive emotions would report enhanced relationship satisfaction and partner social support across time. To test these ideas, we drew on two dyadic and longitudinal studies of new parents. In Study 1, 104 couples (208 individuals) completed surveys across the course of 1 year, and in Study 2, 192 couples (384 individuals) completed surveys and a laboratory-based social support interaction over the course of 2 years. At each wave of data collection, participants completed assessments of positive emotions, relationship satisfaction, and partner social support. We examined how actor and partner positive emotions longitudinally predicted relational adjustment across time. Results demonstrated that, even when controlling for baseline levels of each outcome variable, greater actor reports of positive emotions prospectively predicted greater subsequent actor (a) relationship satisfaction, (b) perceptions of social support from the partner, and (c) enacted social support as rated by independent observers, a pattern that was especially prominent for fathers. These results suggest positive emotions may be a resource that fosters healthy relational adjustment during chronically stressful periods that threaten intimate relationships, including during the transition to parenthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Pais , Satisfação Pessoal , Emoções , Humanos , Lactente , Pais/psicologia , Parceiros Sexuais/psicologia , Apoio SocialRESUMO
Objective: Social approach and avoidance goals - which refer to individual differences in the desire to pursue rewards versus avoid negative experiences in social relationships - have numerous implications for the health and quality of social relationships. Although endorsement of these goals largely arises from people's pre-dispositions towards approach and avoidance, in this research we proposed that meditation training has the potential to beneficially influence the extent to which people adopt approach and avoidance goals. Specifically, we hypothesized that individuals who were randomly assigned to receive training in mindfulness or loving-kindness meditation would report differences in social approach goals and avoidance goals, as compared to those in a wait-list control condition, and that these effects would be mediated by differences in positive and negative emotions. Methods: To examine these hypotheses, we drew upon a community-based, randomized intervention study of 138 mid-life adults, who were assigned to receive mindfulness training, loving-kindness training, or no training in meditation. Results: As compared to the control condition, results demonstrated that loving-kindness training was directly associated with lower social avoidance goals, and indirectly associated with greater approach motivation, via enhanced positive emotion. Conclusion: These results suggest loving-kindness meditation is a means by which people can beneficially influence their approach and avoidance tendencies, which likely plays an important role in enhancing their social relationships.
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Individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD) are at heightened risk for exposure to stressful life events which can lead to increased sensitivity to stress and a dysregulated stress response, which are in turn associated with poor long-term functioning. Stress reactivity is thus a promising treatment target in the early stages of SSD. Integrated-Coping Awareness Therapy (I-CAT) is a manualized intervention integrating mindfulness and positive psychology to target a dysregulated stress response in SSD. The current study is a preliminary randomized-controlled trial (RCT) comparing I-CAT (n = 18) with treatment as usual (TAU; n = 18) in individuals in the early stages of SSD. I-CAT was hypothesized to be more effective than TAU on primary outcomes: increasing positive emotions, decreasing negative emotions, reducing stress, and improving functioning and quality of life; and secondary outcomes: reducing symptoms, increasing mindfulness, and improving overall well-being. Excellent therapy attendance rates, low study attrition, and positive participant feedback demonstrated that I-CAT was a feasible and well-tolerated psychosocial intervention. Results suggest I-CAT led to greater reduction in symptoms (i.e., overall, negative, and disorganized symptoms), increased observational mindfulness, increased endorsement of a sense of purpose in life, and preservation of work abilities and school social functioning compared with TAU. Future work should replicate and extend these findings in a larger-scale RCT.
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Atenção Plena , Esquizofrenia , Adaptação Psicológica , Humanos , Qualidade de Vida , Esquizofrenia/terapiaRESUMO
We propose a methodological paradigm for testing the functions of an emotion using culture. Taking gratitude as an example, we predicted that, for gratitude to function, people in Confucian cultures would use self-improvement (cultivating personal skills and living up to social roles) to communicate gratitude, whereas people in individualist cultures would use bodily contact. Indeed, whereas Taiwanese (Confucian) and American (individualist) participants showed gratitude similarly via verbal acknowledgment and reciprocating kindness (Studies 1 and 2), participants from both countries also demonstrated their uniquely hypothesized respective cultural behaviors when showing gratitude, prioritizing such behaviors more in daily life than did participants from the comparison culture (Study 1). Additionally, compared to the gratitude demonstration uniquely hypothesized for the comparison culture, American and Taiwanese participants reported applying their unique cultural demonstrations similarly to applying the a priori culturally similar demonstrations (e.g., reciprocity; Study 2), implying that the culture-specific demonstrations are as common as the nonspecific within the respective cultures. Finally, Americans perceived gratitude through others' bodily contact (vs. self-improvement) similarly to perceiving gratitude through reciprocity-that is, the 2 behaviors communicated similar information for Americans-whereas it was self-improvement but not bodily contact that communicated gratitude similarly to reciprocity for the Taiwanese (Study 3). Together, this research deconfounds gratitude's underlying relational function from its ostensible manifestations and demonstrates the utility of studying culture to further functionalist emotion theories. We also developed and demonstrate a new method for debiasing cross-cultural comparisons along the way. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Comparação Transcultural , Emoções/fisiologia , Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Percepção , Taiwan , Estados UnidosRESUMO
We propose a novel theoretical and empirical approach to studying group-level social functions of emotions and use it to make new predictions about social consequences of gratitude. Here, we document the witnessing effect: In social groups, emotional expressions are often observed by third-party witnesses-family members, coworkers, friends, and neighbors. Emotional expressions coordinate group living by changing third-party witnesses' behavior toward first-party emotion expressers and toward second-party people to whom emotion is expressed. In 8 experiments (N = 1,817), we test this for gratitude, hypothesizing that third-party witnesses will be more helpful and affiliative toward a first party who expressed gratitude to a second party, as well as toward the second party, and why. In Experiments 1-3, participants who witnessed a "thank you" in 1 line of text, expressed to someone who previously helped the grateful person, were themselves more helpful toward the grateful person. In Experiment 4, witnesses of gratitude expressed to someone else via video recording subsequently self-disclosed more to the grateful person, and in Experiment 5 wanted to affiliate more with the grateful person and with the person toward whom gratitude was expressed. Experiments 6-8 used within-subjects designs to test hypothesized behavioral and social-perceptual mechanisms for these effects, with videos of real gratitude expressions. Gratitude may help build multiple relationships within a social network directly and simultaneously. By specifying proximal interpersonal mechanisms for reverberating consequences of 1 person's communicated emotion, the present work advances theory on the group-level functions of emotions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Emoções , Relações Interpessoais , Percepção Social , Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Adulto JovemRESUMO
Contrary to the expectations of many, Hillary Clinton lost the 2016 U.S. presidential election. The initial shock to her supporters turned into despair for most, but not everyone was affected equally. We draw from the literature on political activism, identity, and self-other overlap in predicting that not all Clinton voters would be equivalently crushed by her loss. Specifically, we hypothesize that pre-election measures of political activism, and level of self-other identification between participants and Clinton-that is, how much a person was "with her"-will interact to predict the level of distress of Clinton voters two months later. Longitudinal data support our hypothesis. Notably, among Clinton voters, greater activism negatively predicted depressive symptoms, and positively predicted sleep quality, but only when participants were highly identified with Clinton. We discuss the implications of the results for theory and research on social action and well-being.