Is non-traditional therapy for multiple sclerosis overwhelming in Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence, knowledge and attitudes about complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use and the proportion that seek advice from their physician about CAM use. METHODS: This cross-sectional observational study was performed in multiple sclerosis (MS) clinic of King Fahd Hospital of Universityin Alkhobar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from January-June 2017. A total of 133 patients have completed the survey. RESULTS: The mean age of patients was 32.3+/-7.6 years and 84 (63.2%) were female. Approximately 83.5% of the patients reported the use of CAM. Among all the reported forms of CAM, vitamins were the most prevalent form, followed by cupping, special prayers and meditation. The majority of patients (62%) obtained knowledge of CAM through social media. A significant number of patients (75.6%) did not disclose the use of CAM to their physician. There was a trend for using CAM more in highly educated, older age, and female patients. The most commonly reported rationale to use CAM was overall improvement in health status. CONCLUSION: The use of CAM among Saudi patients with MS is highly prevalent, without disclosure of its use to physicians. These factors should be taken into account in the doctor-patient consultation to avoid adverse events.

New onset epilepsy in the elderly: clinical, radiological and electroencephalographic features and treatment responses.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate new onset epilepsy characteristics, etiology, radiological and electroencephalographic features and to document treatment response in the elderly. METHODS: This was a retrospective study carried out in King Fahd Medical City, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, from 2010 to 2013. Medical records were searched to recruit patients. Hundred and nineteen patients were enrolled who fulfill the inclusion criteria. Clinical data with respect to seizure semiology, etiology, electroencephalographic findings, radiological findings, co-morbidities, and anti-epileptic drug (AED) therapy were assessed. RESULTS: Cerebrovascular disease was the most common etiology, followed by occult cerebrovascular disease (oCVD). Focal onset seizures were the most common clinical presentation in this group of cohort. Electroencephalogram (EEG) showed generalized slowing in majority of patients (45.5%), with 21.8% interictal epileptiform activity. Patients required lower doses of AEDs to control seizures, gain better seizure control. Common co-morbidities were hypertension and diabetes mellitus. CONCLUSION: Patients presenting with LOE, should have search for any other cerebrovascular risk factors. Further research is needed to determine the prevalence of oCVD in LOE, and to investigate whether addressing cerebrovascular risk factors in this cohort of patients can reduce the incidence of stroke.

Characteristics of Stroke-related Seizures and their Predictive Factors: A Tertiary Care Center Experience.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Various risk factors have been described in the literature that increase the risk of seizures associated with stroke. This study was aimed to determine the occurrence rate of poststroke seizures (PSSs) and the associated risk factors in Arab population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Study included all stroke patients aged >18 years with a minimum follow-up of 24 months following stroke to identify seizure occurrence. Patient's hospital records for all admissions and clinic visits were reviewed. Seizures were classified into early PSS if they occur within 1 week of stroke, and late PSS if they occur after 1 week of stroke. RESULTS: Out of 594 patients, 380 were males. Seizure occurrence was higher in anterior circulation infarctions (94.8%, P < 0.05), cortical location (80.5%, P < 0.05), large artery atherosclerosis (63.8%, P < 0.05), lower activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) (P = 0.0007), patients with ischemic heart disease (IHD) (P = 0.01), and those who underwent craniotomy (P = 0.001). Nonhigh-density lipoprotein cholesterol was inversely related to PSS (P = 0.01). Higher stroke severity (89%) and confusion (67%) at the time of presentation were independently related to PSS. CONCLUSIONS: Eighty-two (13.8%) patients had PSS. Greater stroke severity at presentation with altered sensorium was independent risk factors for the development of PSS. Patients with underlying IHD, lower APTT, and undergoing neurosurgical intervention require vigilant monitoring for PSS.

Résumé Ontexte et objectif:Divers facteurs de risque ont été décrits dans la littérature qui augmentent le risque de convulsions associées à un AVC. Cette étude visait à déterminer le taux d'occurrence des crises post-AVC (PSS) et les facteurs de risque associés dans la population arabe.Matériels et Méthodes:L'étude a inclus tous les patients victimes d'AVC âgés de plus de 18 ans avec un suivi minimum de 24 mois après l'AVC pour identifier la survenue d'une crise. Les dossiers hospitaliers des patients pour toutes les admissions et visites à la clinique ont été examinés. Les saisies ont été classées en premiers PSS s'ils surviennent dans la semaine suivant l'AVC, et PSS tardif s'ils surviennent après 1 semaine de l'AVC.Résultats:Sur 594 patients, 380 étaient des hommes. Crise d'épilepsie la fréquence était plus élevée dans les infarctus de la circulation antérieure (94,8 %, P < 0,05), la localisation corticale (80,5 %, P < 0,05), l'athérosclérose des grandes artères (63,8 %, P < 0,05), un temps de thromboplastine partielle activé (APTT) inférieur (P = 0,0007), les patients atteints de cardiopathie ischémique (IHD) (P = 0,01) et ceux ayant subi une craniotomie (P = 0,001). Le cholestérol des lipoprotéines non de haute densité était inversement lié au PSS (P = 0,01). Course supérieure la gravité (89 %) et la confusion (67 %) au moment de la présentation étaient indépendamment liées au PSS.Conclusions:Quatre-vingt-deux (13,8 %) patients avait PSS. Une plus grande gravité de l'AVC lors de la présentation avec un sensorium altéré était un facteur de risque indépendant pour le développement du PSS. Les patients avec une IHD sous-jacente, un APTT inférieur et une intervention neurochirurgicale nécessitent une surveillance vigilante du PSS.

Clinical and Radiological Parameters Affecting the Yield of Routine Electroencephalography in Various Indications.

OBJECTIVES: To highlight the significance of various clinical and radiological parameters in association with specific electroencephalographic (EEG) patterns in order to prioritize EEG referrals. METHOD: This retrospective, cross-sectional study was conducted in the neurology department of King Fahad University Hospital, Alkhobar, and involved a review and analysis of EEG and medical records pertaining to 604 patients referred for routine EEG. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 22. An association between various parameters and EEG yield was established. RESULTS: Factors associated with the yield of abnormal EEG patterns were diverse, like generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCs) (P =.05), status epilepticus (SE) (P =.05), altered level of consciousness (ALC) (P =.00), abnormal movement (P =.00), cardiac arrest (P =.00), prior history of epilepsy (P =.04), chronic renal disease (CRD) (P =.03), abnormal neurological exam (P =.00), and cortical lesions on brain imaging (P =.00). Among the abnormal EEG patterns, epileptiform activity (EA) in EEG was associated with focal seizures (P =.03), GTCs (P =.00), falls (P =.05), cardiac arrest (P =.00), a history of epilepsy (P =.00), and hypoxic ischemic injury (P =.03). Encephalopathy in EEG was also associated with focal sz (P =.02), GTCs (P =.00), SE (P =.01), ALC (P =.00), cardiac arrest (P =.00), history of stroke (P =.01), and epilepsy (P =.00). CONCLUSION: Among the studied parameters, patient level of consciousness, neurological exam findings, and neuroimaging findings, with some discrepancies, were found to be the most consistent in predicting the EEG yield. The study demonstrated the value of a proper neurological exam and careful selection of patients to gain the optimum benefit from the routine EEG.

Résumé Objectifs:Mettre en évidence l'importance de divers paramètres cliniques et radiologiques en association avec des profils électroencéphalographiques (EEG) spécifiques afin de prioriser les références EEG.Méthode:Cette étude transversale rétrospective a été menée dans le département de neurologie de l'hôpital universitaire King Fahad, à Alkhobar, et comprenait un examen et une analyse de l'EEG et des dossiers médicaux de 604 patients référés pour un EEG de routine. Les données ont été analysées à l'aide de la version 22 de SPSS Une association entre divers paramètres et le rendement EEG a été établie.Résultats:Les facteurs associés au rendement de profils EEG anormaux étaient divers, comme les crises tonico-cloniques généralisées (GTC) (P = 0,05), l'état de mal épileptique (SE) (P = 0,05), l'altération du niveau de conscience (ALC) (P = 0,00), les mouvements anormaux (P = 0,00), l'arrêt cardiaque (P = 0,00), les antécédents d'épilepsie (P = 0,04), l'insuffisance rénale chronique (MRC) (P = 0,03), l'examen neurologique anormal (P = 0,00), et lésions corticales sur le cerveau imagerie (P = 0,00). Parmi les profils EEG anormaux, l'activité épileptiforme (EA) dans l'EEG était associée à des crises focales (P = 0,03), des GTC (P = 0,00), des chutes (P = 0,05), un arrêt cardiaque (P = 0,00), des antécédents d'épilepsie (P = 0,00) et une lésion ischémique hypoxique (P = 0,03). L'encéphalopathie dans l'EEG était également associée à sz focal (P = 0,02), GTC (P = 0,00), SE (P = 0,01), ALC (P = 0,00), arrêt cardiaque (P = 0,00), antécédents d'accident vasculaire cérébral (P = 0,01) et épilepsie (P = 0,00).Conclusion:Parmi les paramètres étudiés, le niveau de conscience du patient, les résultats de l'examen neurologique et les résultats de la neuroimagerie, avec quelques divergences, se sont avérés les plus cohérents dans la prédiction du rendement EEG. L'étude a démontré la valeur d'un examen neurologique approprié et d'une sélection minutieuse des patients pour tirer le meilleur parti de l'EEG de routine.

Characteristics and outcomes of large artery occlusion-related stroke due to intracranial atherostenosis: An experience from a single center in Saudi Arabia.

BACKGROUND: Literature on the frequency, response to treatment, and outcomes of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) due to intracranial atherostenosis (ICAS)-related intracranial large artery occlusion (ILAO) from Saudi Arabia is scarce. The aim of this study was to identify the percentage, describe the characteristics, and observe the treatment response in patients with AIS attributed to ICAS-related ILAO. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This cross-sectional study included all adult patients from 2017-2021 who fulfilled the inclusion criteria for the diagnosis of ICAS-related AIS. Patients were dichotomized based on ILAO. Mortality and functional outcomes (FOCs) based on 90 days' dependence level were compared between the two groups. The association between ILAO and other variables was assessed using the Chi-squared test, odds ratios (OR), and 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS: ILAO was found in 38.7% of patients with ICAS-related AIS. Men comprised three-fourths of the cohort and were more frequent in the ILAO group. Smoking was associated with increased (P = 0.04) likelihood of ILAO. Patients with ILAO had more severe strokes (P ≤ 0.001) than patients without. Middle cerebral artery was the most common occluded vessel (52%). Functional dependence (P = 0.003, OR = 2.87, CI = 1.42-5.77), malignant transformation (P = 0.001, OR = 8.0, CI = 1.82-35.9), and mortality (P ≤ 0.001, OR = 7.67, CI = 2.40-24.5) were significantly higher among ILAO group. Patients with ILAO with unfavorable FOC were older than those who achieved better FOC (P ≤ 0.001). Thrombolysis (P = 0.02, OR = 2.50, CI = 1.15-5.41) and mechanical thrombectomy (MT) improved FOC in patients with ILAO (P = 0.04, OR = 2.33, CI = 1.10-4.92). CONCLUSION: ILAO is common in patients with ICAS-related AIS. Timely hyperacute stroke treatment can help improve the FOC of otherwise disabling stroke due to ILAO. Raising awareness of the community about stroke is needed, so that a higher number of patients can arrive at hospital within the golden hours. Further data from the region are required to recognize the efficacy of MT in ICAS-related ILAO.

The efficacy of new neuronal growth factor in the healing of the sciatic nerves in rabbits.

Background and Objective: Regeneration of nervous tissue is unpredictable and an ideal growth factor to influence the healing of the injured nerves is not available. A recent study in rats had shown that a new neuronal growth factor (NNGF) was effective in the early healing of the sciatic nerves. The aim of this experimental study is to test the efficacy of NNGF in the healing of iatrogenic division of the sciatic nerves in a larger animal (rabbits). Methods: White New Zealand 20 male rabbits of 6 months of age were divided into two groups. Intramuscular ketamine and xylazine were used to anesthetize the animals. The sciatic nerves were divided using scalpel blade 15 and 10/0 Vicryl was used to repair the divided neural tissue. In the study group, 10 mg/kg body weight of NNGF was instilled on the top of the divided nerves and the wound was closed. At 4 weeks, the operated limbs were observed for any trophic skin changes. Nerve conduction studies were carried out using train-of-four-Watch SX, Organon (Ireland) Ltd., and Ireland. The rabbits were put to death humanely and the sciatic nerves were removed and delivered to the pathologist in 2% formalin. The pathologists were blinded about the two groups. Results: Electromyographic study done at 4 weeks showed in the untreated group; the mean twitches 1-T4 was 0.45 ± 0.31% and in the treated group, the average was 77.912 ± 5% (P > 0.001). Microscopic anatomy in the treated group revealed prominent healing by regeneration was evidenced by showing growth of its proximal segments into an empty endoneurial tube which was not seen in the control group. In the control group, the nerves showed no histological element of healing by regeneration. Conclusions: NNGF proves that in a larger animal at 4 weeks profoundly influenced early regeneration of experimentally created divisions of myelinated nerve tissue.

Résumé Contexte et objectif: La régénération des tissus nerveux est imprévisible et un facteur de croissance idéal pour influencer la guérison des nerfs blessés n'est pas disponible. Une étude récente chez le rat a montré qu'un nouveau facteur de croissance neuronal (NNGF) était efficace dans la guérison précoce des nerfs sciatiques. L'objectif de cette étude expérimentale est de tester l'efficacité du NNGF dans la guérison de la division iatrogène des nerfs sciatiques chez un animal plus grand (lapin). Méthodes: White New Zealand 20 lapins mâles de 6 mois ont été divisés en deux groupes. La kétamine intramusculaire et la xylazine ont été utilisées pour anesthésier les animaux. Les nerfs sciatiques ont été divisés en utilisant la lame scalpel 15 et 10/0 vicryl ont été utilisés pour réparer le tissu neural divisé. Dans le groupe d'étude, 10 mg / kg de poids corporel du NNGF ont été inculqués sur le dessus des nerfs divisés et la plaie a été fermée. À 4 semaines, les membres opérés ont été observés pour tout changement de peau trophique. Des études de conduction nerveuse ont été menées à l'aide de SX Train-of-Nat-Watch, Organon (Ireland) Ltd. et Ireland. Les lapins ont été mis à mort avec humanité et les nerfs sciatiques ont été retirés et livrés au pathologiste dans 2% de formol. Les pathologistes ont été aveuglés sur les deux groupes. Résultats: électromyographique L'étude réalisée à 4 semaines a montré dans le groupe non traité; Les contractions moyennes 1 à T4 étaient de 0,45 ± 0,31% et dans le groupe traité, la moyenne était de 77,912 ± 5% (p> 0,001). L'anatomie microscopique dans le groupe traité a révélé une guérison importante par régénération a été mise en évidence en montrant la croissance de ses segments proximaux dans un tube endoneurial vide qui n'a pas été observé dans le groupe témoin. Dans le groupe témoin, les nerfs n'ont montré aucun élément histologique de guérison par régénération. Conclusions: NNGF prouve que chez un animal plus grand à 4 semaines, a profondément influencé la régénération précoce des divisions créées expérimentalement du tissu nerveux myélinisé. Mots-clés: Facteurs de croissance, régénération nerveuse, nerfs sciatiques.

Integration of Transcriptome and Exome Genotyping Identifies Significant Variants with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Autism is a complex disease with genetic predisposition factors. Real factors for treatment and early diagnosis are yet to be defined. This study integrated transcriptome and exome genotyping for identifying functional variants associated with autism spectrum disorder and their impact on gene expression to find significant variations. More than 1800 patients were screened, and 70 (47 male/23 female) with an average age of 7.56 ± 3.68 years fulfilled the DSM-5 criteria for autism. Analysis revealed 682 SNPs of 589 genes significantly (p < 0.001) associated with autism among the putative functional exonic variants (n = 243,345) studied. Olfactory receptor genes on chromosome 6 were significant after Bonferroni correction (α = 0.05/243345 = 2.05 × 10-7) with a high degree of linkage disequilibrium on 6p22.1 (p = 6.71 × 10-9). The differentially expressed gene analysis of autistic patients compared to controls in whole RNA sequencing identified significantly upregulated (foldchange ≥0.8 and p-value ≤ 0.05; n = 125) and downregulated (foldchange ≤-0.8 and p-value ≤ 0.05; n = 117) genes. The integration of significantly up- and downregulated genes and genes of significant SNPs identified regulatory variants (rs6657480, rs3130780, and rs1940475) associated with the up- (ITGB3BP) and downregulation (DDR1 and MMP8) of genes in autism spectrum disorder in people of Arab ancestries. The significant variants could be a biomarker of interest for identifying early autism among Arabs and helping to characterize the genes involved in the susceptibility mechanisms for autistic subjects.

An Observational Study Comparing the Safety and Efficacy of Conventional Anticoagulation Versus New Oral Anticoagulants in the Management of Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis.

Objective: To compare the safety and efficacy of conventional anticoagulants with new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) for management of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST).Methods: This was a retrospective, prospective cohort study of patients who presented with CVST to a tertiary stroke center in the Middle East from January 2012 to October 2019. Patients with a diagnosis of CVST were identified, and data were analyzed for demographic characteristics. Specific consideration was given to compare the efficacy and safety of different anticoagulation treatments.Results: A total of 36 patients were included in the final analysis, with 15 (41%) men and 21 (59%) women and a male to female ratio of 1:1.4. Most of the patients (n = 22, 61%) were Saudi. Their ages ranged between 15 and 82 years (mean ± SD age of 34.22 ± 13.16 years). Headache was the most common feature, present in 22 (61%) of the patients, followed by unilateral weakness in 15 (41%) and cranial nerve palsies in 11 (30%). The most common etiology was prothrombotic state (both hereditary and acquired thrombophilia: n = 16, 45%). Other etiologies were postpartum state/oral contraceptive pill usage in 7 (19%), infections in 7 (19%), and trauma in 3 (8%). Most of the patients (n = 24, 67%) still received conventional anticoagulation (warfarin/low molecular weight heparin), but 9 (25%) of the patients consented to start NOACs. Efficacy (as measured by clinical improvement plus rate of recanalization of previously thrombosed venous sinuses) showed no statistically significant difference, although it proved to be better tolerated, as none of the patients stopped the treatment due to adverse events and risk of major bleeding was significantly low in the NOAC group. Nine patients in the warfarin group stopped medication, while none in the NOAC group did so (P = .034).Conclusion: NOACs were found to be at least as good as conventional anticoagulation for the management of CVST. However, efficacy was almost similar, a finding that is consistent with most of the published case series and the few recently published prospective studies. Larger prospective and population-based studies are needed to clarify our preliminary results.

Influence of Sex Difference on Distribution of Risk Factors and Etiologic Subtypes of Acute Ischemic Stroke: Reality of Facts.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Sex-related differences have been documented in risk factors distribution, etiologic subtypes, diagnostic evaluation, offered management, and outcome of patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) from all over the world. Nevertheless, studies from Saudi Arabia are lacking. This study aimed to investigate the influence of sex on distribution of risk factors and etiologic subtype of AIS in patients admitted to our hospital. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Record of patients admitted to King Fahd Hospital of the University between 2010 and 2017 with ischemic stroke (IS) were reviewed. Base line characteristics, risk factors, and etiologic subtypes according to Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) classification were compared between men and women. RESULTS: Among 453 patients with IS, 300 (66.2%) were men and 153 (33.7%) were women. The mean age of all patients was 61.5 ± 14.5 years. Women were older than men (P = 0.00). Hypertension (P = 0.00), atrial fibrillation (P = 0.00), and past history of stroke (P = 0.03) were more frequent in women compared to men. Fewer carotid Doppler studies (47.1 vs. 68.3%, P = 0.00) and echocardiogram (75.1 vs. 83%, P = 0.01) were done in women as compared to men. Cardioembolic etiologic subtype (26.1 vs. 17.7%) was found more frequently, whereas small vessel occlusive (23.5 vs. 31%) and large artery disease less (10.5 vs. 16.3%) frequently in women. CONCLUSION: Significant sex-related differences were found in risk factors and subtypes of AIS in our cohort of patients. Findings of our study are in general comparable with studies from all over the world.

Impact of depression and fatigue on relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES: To determine relationship between fatigue, depression with the registration in multiple sclerosis (MS) society activity, and stress with the risk developing a new attack in patients with Relapsing remitting MS (RRMS) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). METHODS: This was a cohort retrospective study conducted in the KSA between July 2018 and July 2019 which included a total of 465 RRMS patients. Data were collected during interviews using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Modified Fatigue Impacts Scale (MFIS). Demographic and clinical data were also collected. RESULTS: Of 465 participants, 317 expressed psychological stress before the last attack, 67 of whom developed an attack within 4 weeks, and 250 of whom developed an attack after 4 weeks. Significantly lower BDI scores were associated with registration in MS associations (p=0.003, df = 5). Significantly lower MFIS scores were associated with registration in MS associations (p=0.001, df = 5). CONCLUSION: The majority of RRMS patients have a significant fatigue and depression, and there are significant relationships between registration in the MS society and MFIS and BDI scores where patients who officially registered in MS society have lower score in MFIS and BDI. we recommend regular follow-ups with a psychologist and/or registration with MS societies.

Etiologic and Clinical Features of Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis in Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVE: Our study aims to evaluate the etiologic and clinical features of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) in Saudi Arabia, and secondarily whether gender plays a role in CVST. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were collected retrospectively from the stroke registry during the period from January 2008 to April 2018, and the patients with the diagnosis of CVST were identified, and data were analyzed for any gender-specific differences in clinical presentation and etiology of cerebral venous thrombosis. RESULTS: There were 15 females while 11 males with a female:male ratio of 1.4:1. The mean age was 29.4± standard deviation 8.9 with the age range of 15-49. Headache was the most common and usually the first presenting symptoms present in 65% followed by hemiparesis and cranial nerve palsies. The first neurological examination was normal in 9/26 (34.6%) of the patients, while the common abnormality was cranial nerve palsies. Infections and trauma played an important part in risk factor analysis of our patient after the pregnancy- and hormone-related conditions. Some significant differences between the clinical presentation and risk factors among males and females were noted as age at presentation was higher in females while trauma and infections were common in male patients, although the involvement of the sinuses and response to treatment did not prove to be statistically significant. CONCLUSION: The results of this study were similar to the available literature with few differences. The relatively higher proportion of males in our study can be explained partly with more cases of traumatic CVST. Some important differences were noted between the risk factors and clinical presentation among genders. Large-scale prospective studies are needed to further clarify these differences.

Relationship Between Glycated Haemoglobin and Carotid Atherosclerotic Disease Among Patients with Acute Ischaemic Stroke.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the relationship between glycaemic control and carotid atherosclerotic disease among patients with acute ischaemic stroke (AIS). METHODS: This retrospective cross-sectional study took place in the Neurology Department of King Fahad Hospital of University, Khobar, Saudi Arabia, from April to October 2017. Data were collected from the medical records of 244 patients with a diagnosis of AIS confirmed by computed tomography. Doppler ultrasounds of the carotid artery were performed to determine the presence of increased carotid intima media thickness (CIMT) and plaques. RESULTS: Significantly higher mean glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) levels were noted in cases with high CIMT values (P = 0.002), but not in cases with carotid plaques (P = 0.360). In addition, there was a significant association between diabetes mellitus (DM) and high CIMT (P = 0.045), but not with carotid plaques (P = 0.075). Finally, while dyslipidaemia and age were independently correlated with high CIMT values (P = 0.034 and <0.001, respectively) and carotid plaques (P <0.001 each), no independent relationships were noted in terms of gender and other risk factors like DM, hypertension and smoking (P >0.050 each). CONCLUSION: High HbA1c levels were associated with high CIMT values, but not with carotid plaques. Therefore, HbA1c levels may be useful as an indirect marker of the initial stages of carotid artery atherosclerosis.

Clinical Presentations and Phenotypic Spectrum of Multiple Sclerosis at a University Hospital in Saudi Arabia.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to determine the frequencies of different clinical presentations and the phenotypic spectrum of multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS: This cross-sectional study was performed in the Neurology Department of King Fahd Hospital of University Alkhobar in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Data of 190 MS patients who fulfilled the McDonald criteria were retrieved from medical records and analyzed. RESULTS: The age at disease onset was 26.27±8.2 years (mean±SD) and disease duration was 6.38±5.10 years. The male-to-female ratio was 1:1.6. Optic neuritis and myelitis were the most-frequent first clinical presentations. Sensory (73.1%), motor (61%), and visual (58.4%) symptoms were the most-frequent established clinical symptoms. Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) was present in 75% of the cases. Supratentorial T2-weighted white-matter lesions and deep-gray-matter or juxtacortical lesions were the most-frequent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesions, comprising 28% and 23.7% of all MRI lesions observed in 93.6% and 79.4% of the cases, respectively. The scores on the Expanded Disability Status Scale were within the range of 1.0-5.5 in 82.1% of the patients. There were 145 (76.3%) patients taking interferon ß therapy. CONCLUSIONS: MS presenting in the hospital setting is more common in KSA than reported previously, and the number of diagnosed cases in increasing. It is therefore an emerging and disabling neurological illness in KSA with clinical characteristics not dissimilar to those in other middle eastern countries. A decrease in the frequency of patients with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) indicates either that more new cases of RRMS are being diagnosed or that adequate treatments of RRMS are preventing the evolution to SPMS. Further larger and population-wide epidemiological and clinical studies with the long-term follow-up of MS patients are required to better assess the clinical spectrum of MS in KSA.