Modeling diffusion-weighted imaging lesion expansion between 2 and 24 h after endovascular thrombectomy in acute ischemic stroke.

PURPOSE: Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) lesion expansion after endovascular thrombectomy (EVT) is not well characterized. We used serial diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure lesion expansion between 2 and 24 h after EVT. METHODS: In this single-center observational analysis of patients with acute ischemic stroke due to large vessel occlusion, DWI was performed post-EVT (< 2 h after closure) and 24-h later. DWI lesion expansion was evaluated using multivariate generalized linear mixed modeling with various clinical moderators. RESULTS: We included 151 patients, of which 133 (88%) had DWI lesion expansion, defined as a positive change in lesion volume between 2 and 24 h. In an unadjusted analysis, median baseline DWI lesion volume immediately post-EVT was 15.0 mL (IQR: 6.6-36.8) and median DWI lesion volume 24 h post-EVT was 20.8 mL (IQR: 9.4-66.6), representing a median change of 6.1 mL (IQR: 1.5-17.7), or a 39% increase. There were no significant associations among univariable models of lesion expansion. Adjusted models of DWI lesion expansion demonstrated that relative lesion expansion (defined as final/initial DWI lesion volume) was consistent across eTICI scores (0-2a, 0.52%; 2b, 0.49%; 2c-3, 0.42%, p = 0.69). For every 1 mL increase in lesion volume, there was 2% odds of an increase in 90-day mRS (OR: 1.021, 95%CI [1.009, 1.034], p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: We observed substantial lesion expansion post-EVT whereby relative lesion expansion was consistent across eTICI categories, and greater absolute lesion expansion was associated with worse clinical outcome. Our findings suggest that alternate endpoints for cerebroprotectant trials may be feasible.

Prospective Clinical Trials: 10-year Trends in Radiology.

Online supplemental material is available for this article.

Imaging features of vertebral artery fenestration.

PURPOSE: Vertebral artery fenestration (VAF) is a rare congenital vascular anomaly which has been associated with intracranial aneurysm. VAF can share some similar imaging features with vertebral artery dissection (VAD), which may confound diagnosis of the latter on CT and MR angiography. The purpose of this investigation is to assess the prevalence of VAF, evaluate its association with other vascular anomalies, and identify imaging features to help in distinguishing VAF and VAD. METHODS: Using keyword search on CTA and MRA head and neck imaging reports from 2010 to 2017, cases of VAF and VAD were retrospectively identified and imaging was reviewed. Imaging features including laterality; vertebral segment; length of affected segment; presence, number, and caliber of lumen(s); and presence of other vascular abnormalities were recorded for all cases and subsequently compared using Pearson's chi-squared test to assess for significant differences between the groups. Patient age, gender, and clinical presentations were also recorded. RESULTS: Of 64,888 CT and MR angiographic examinations performed, VAF was identified in 67 (0.1%) and VAD in 54 (0.1%) patients. Compared with VADs, VAFs were shorter in length (p < 0.001), wider in luminal diameter (p < 0.001), more likely to occur at the V4 segment (p < 0.01), more likely to have two distinct lumens rather than one (p < 0.01), and less likely to present post-trauma (p < 0.01). Coexisting intracranial aneurysms were identified in 9% of patients with VAF. CONCLUSION: VAFs, although rare, can be readily distinguished from VADs on angiographic imaging. Diagnosis of VAF should prompt review for intracranial aneurysm.

Musculoskeletal Radiology Reports: Overlooked or Valuable?

The electronic medical record (EMR) can reveal preferences of clinicians regarding imaging services. We sought to evaluate viewing habits for reports and images of musculoskeletal (MSK) studies by ordering clinicians. We hypothesized that MSK reports are important to clinical management, especially for advanced imaging modalities. We tracked the image and report access of all MSK studies ordered in September 2016 over 8 months using logs of the EMR (Epic Systems, Verona, WI), and by an independent analysis of the institutional PACS (Picture Archiving and Communication Systems) (Carestream Health, Rochester, NY). The time stamps were extracted for when images and reports were viewed. We categorized MSK studies by modality and provider department. We also compared the rates of viewing reports and images among different modalities and departments using the chi-square test. Of the 8143 viewed MSK studies, 7842 (96.3%) reports (with/without images) and 3916 (48.1%) imaging data (with/without reports) were viewed. Viewing reports alone occurred in 4227 (51.9%) studies. CT and MRI reports alone views occurred more often in comparison to radiographs ([482/706; 68.3%] for CT and [981/1713; 57.3%] for MRI vs. [2764/5724; 48.3%] for radiography, p < 0.001). Orthopedists ordered the highest number of MSK studies and viewed reports 99.2% (3216/3242) of the time, including a 54.6% (1770/3242) rate of viewing reports alone and a 44.6% (1446/3242) rate of viewing both reports and images. They viewed images without reports in 0.8% (27/3242) of cases. MSK reports were viewed significantly more frequently than the images across all modalities and all relevant specialties.

The USMLE Step 2 CS: Time for a change.

The United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE(®)) Steps are a series of mandatory licensing assessments for all allopathic (MD degree) medical students in their transition from student to intern to resident physician. Steps 1, 2 Clinical Knowledge (CK), and 3 are daylong multiple-choice exams that quantify a medical student's basic science and clinical knowledge as well as their application of that knowledge using a three-digit score. In doing so, these Steps provide a standardized assessment that residency programs use to differentiate applicants and evaluate their competitiveness. Step 2 Clinical Skills (CS), the only other Step exam and the second component of Step 2, was created in 2004 to test clinical reasoning and patient-centered skills. As a Pass/Fail exam without a numerical scoring component, Step 2 CS provides minimal differentiation among applicants for residency programs. In this personal view article, it is argued that the current Step 2 CS exam should be eliminated for US medical students and propose an alternative consistent with the mission and purpose of the exam that imposes less of a burden on medical students.

Adverse Events With the Use of rhBMP-2 in Thoracolumbar and Lumbar Spine Fusions: A 9-Year Institutional Analysis.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. OBJECTIVE: To describe the adverse outcomes associated with the use of rhBMP-2 in thoracolumbar and lumbar fusions. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: rhBMP-2 has been increasingly used in spinal fusions over the past decade. Early studies reported that the use of rhBMP-2 is associated with decreased operative time, blood loss, and pain scores, as well as improved fusion rates. Recent investigations have shown rhBMP-2 to be associated with various complications occurring at incidences ranging from 0% to 100%. METHODS: Using the institutional electronic medical records, we retrospectively reviewed all patients between January 2002 and September 2010 that underwent thoracolumbar and lumbar spine fusion with BMP. Patient demographics, operative, and outcome/complication information was collected. RESULTS: A total of 547 patient charts were reviewed with a mean follow-up time of 17 months. Mean age was 58 years. Forty-one percent of patients had undergone previous spine surgery. Thirty-nine percent of patients had a PLIF/TLIF, 29% underwent a PLF, and 20% an ALIF. No relevant differences in the patient characteristics and complications were identified between the various surgical approaches. For all approaches, having undergone a previous spine surgery was associated with increased incidence of radiculitis, reoperation, and pseudoarthrosis (P=0.005, 0.0008, 0.05, respectively) as compared with those without previous spine surgery. Being a current smoker at the time of operation was associated with increased rate of radiculitis (P=0.03) as compared with nonsmokers. CONCLUSIONS: The use of rhBMP-2, in this study, had an incidence of radiculitis, pseudoarthrosis, and reoperation that was similar to the rates in historical controls without rhBMP-2. Complications do not differ by surgical approach, but are more likely in current smokers and those undergoing revision surgery. A prospective study is warranted to further delineate the adverse event profile of rhBMP-2 and the variables that are likely to affect it (ie, type of surgery, carrier, and dose).

Quality of life outcomes following surgery for patients with coexistent cervical stenosis and multiple sclerosis.

PURPOSE: To investigate the quality of life outcomes following surgical treatment of patients with coexisting multiple sclerosis (MS) and cervical stenosis with associated myelopathy (CS). METHODS: A retrospective review of the medical records and of prospectively acquired quality of life (QOL) data was performed for all patients with symptoms of myelopathy and coexisting diagnoses of MS and CS that underwent cervical decompression surgery between 2008 and 2011. The study population was matched (1:4) to a control cohort of patients that did not have MS but presented with similar myelopathic symptoms due to cervical stenosis, were of the same age and gender, and underwent the same cervical decompression procedure within the same year. RESULTS: Sixty-five patients were reviewed, including 13 in the MS group and 52 in the control group that were followed for an average of 22 and 18 months, respectively. Whereas patients in the MS cohort remained at a Quality-Adjusted Life-Year (QALY) gain of 0.51 both pre- and post-operatively (p = 0.96), patients in the matched control cohort improved from a preoperative QALY of 0.50 to a postoperative QALY of 0.64 (p < 0.0001). The latter represents an improvement that exceeds the minimum clinically important difference. Overall, 70% of patients in the control group experienced an improvement in QALY, compared to only 54% in the MS group (p = 0.4). CONCLUSION: Patients in the control cohort had clinically and statistically significant improvements in QALY outcomes. Those in the MS cohort averaged no change in QALY. However, only a minority of MS/CS patients had worsening QALY following surgery, and as such surgery may still be considered for these patients. It is imperative that there are preoperative discussions with the MS/CS patient regarding the likelihood that surgery will only provide limited, if any, improvements in QOL.

Variations in cost calculations in spine surgery cost-effectiveness research.

OBJECT: Cost-effectiveness research in spine surgery has been a prominent focus over the last decade. However, there has yet to be a standardized method developed for calculation of costs in such studies. This lack of a standardized costing methodology may lead to conflicting conclusions on the cost-effectiveness of an intervention for a specific diagnosis. The primary objective of this study was to systematically review all cost-effectiveness studies published on spine surgery and compare and contrast various costing methodologies used. METHODS: The authors performed a systematic review of the cost-effectiveness literature related to spine surgery. All cost-effectiveness analyses pertaining to spine surgery were identified using the cost-effectiveness analysis registry database of the Tufts Medical Center Institute for Clinical Research and Health Policy, and the MEDLINE database. Each article was reviewed to determine the study subject, methodology, and results. Data were collected from each study, including costs, interventions, cost calculation method, perspective of cost calculation, and definitions of direct and indirect costs if available. RESULTS: Thirty-seven cost-effectiveness studies on spine surgery were included in the present study. Twenty-seven (73%) of the studies involved the lumbar spine and the remaining 10 (27%) involved the cervical spine. Of the 37 studies, 13 (35%) used Medicare reimbursements, 12 (32%) used a case-costing database, 3 (8%) used cost-to-charge ratios (CCRs), 2 (5%) used a combination of Medicare reimbursements and CCRs, 3 (8%) used the United Kingdom National Health Service reimbursement system, 2 (5%) used a Dutch reimbursement system, 1 (3%) used the United Kingdom Department of Health data, and 1 (3%) used the Tricare Military Reimbursement system. Nineteen (51%) studies completed their cost analysis from the societal perspective, 11 (30%) from the hospital perspective, and 7 (19%) from the payer perspective. Of those studies with a societal perspective, 14 (38%) reported actual indirect costs. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in cost have a direct impact on the value equation for concluding whether an intervention is cost-effective. It is essential to develop a standardized, accurate means of calculating costs. Comparability and transparency are essential, such that studies can be compared properly and policy makers can be appropriately informed when making decisions for our health care system based on the results of these studies.

Infarcts Due to Large Vessel Occlusions Continue to Grow Despite Near-Complete Reperfusion After Endovascular Treatment.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Infarcts in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients may continue to grow even after reperfusion, due to mechanisms such as microvascular obstruction and reperfusion injury. We investigated whether and how much infarcts grow in AIS patients after near-complete (expanded Thrombolysis in Cerebral Infarction [eTICI] 2c/3) reperfusion following endovascular treatment (EVT), and to assess the association of post-reperfusion infarct growth with clinical outcomes. METHODS: Data are from a single-center retrospective observational cohort study that included AIS patients undergoing EVT with near-complete reperfusion who received diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) within 2 hours post-EVT and 24 hours after EVT. Association of infarct growth between 2 and 24 hours post-EVT and 24-hour National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) as well as 90-day modified Rankin Scale score was assessed using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Ninety-four of 155 (60.6%) patients achieved eTICI 2c/3 and were included in the analysis. Eighty of these 94 (85.1%) patients showed infarct growth between 2 and 24 hours post-reperfusion. Infarct growth ≥5 mL was seen in 39/94 (41.5%) patients, and infarct growth ≥10 mL was seen in 20/94 (21.3%) patients. Median infarct growth between 2 and 24 hours post-reperfusion was 4.5 mL (interquartile range: 0.4-9.2 mL). Post-reperfusion infarct growth was associated with the 24-hour NIHSS in multivariable analysis (odds ratio: 1.16 [95% confidence interval 1.09-1.24], P<0.01). CONCLUSION: Infarcts continue to grow after EVT, even if near-complete reperfusion is achieved. Investigating the underlying mechanisms may inform future therapeutic approaches for mitigating the process and help improve patient outcome.

Ventral fusion versus dorsal fusion: determining the optimal treatment for cervical spondylotic myelopathy.

Cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) often can be surgically treated by either ventral or dorsal decompression and fusion. However, there is a lack of high-level evidence on the relative advantages and disadvantages for these treatments of CSM. The authors' goal was to provide a comprehensive review of the relative benefits of ventral versus dorsal fusion in terms of quality of life (QOL) outcomes, complications, and costs. They reviewed 7 studies on CSM published between 2003 and 2013 and summarized the findings for each category. Both procedures have been shown to lead to statistically significant improvement in clinical outcomes for patients. Ventral fusion surgery has been shown to yield better QOL outcomes than dorsal fusion surgery. Complication rates for ventral fusion surgery range from 11% to 13.6%, whereas those for dorsal fusion surgery range from 16.4% to 19%. Larger randomized controlled trials are needed, with particular emphasis on QOL and minimum clinically important differences.

Parotid Warthin's tumor: novel MR imaging score as diagnostic indicator.

OBJECTIVES: Despite known characteristic radiologic and clinical features, differentiation between Warthin's tumor (WT) and other parotid tumors remains challenging. The purpose of this study was to more precisely assess the MR imaging features of WT and to develop a scoring system combining the most specific characteristics. METHODS: A total of 208 patients with parotid gland tumors and presurgical MRI were included. Tumors were divided into 5 histological subtypes, and different MRI features were compared between groups. An MRI scoring test was developed including MR parameters that contributed significantly in distinguishing WT from other tumors. RESULTS: The best MRI features for differentiating between WTs from other tumors included bilaterality (P = 0.002), multifocality (P < 0.001), ADC values <905.1 (P < 0.001), and high signal intensity on T1-W images (P < 0.001). Six or more points on the 14-point scoring MRI scale was associated with an area under the curve of 0.99 (Accuracy of 98%), while a cut-off value of 7 indicated 100% specificity and 100% positive predictive value. CONCLUSIONS: Ill-defined margins, low T1-W signal, and location in the upper 2/3 of the parotid gland excluded WTs in 100% of cases. The proposed scoring method allows WTs to be distinguished from other tumors with high accuracy.

Value of acute neurovascular imaging in patients with suspected transient ischemic attack.

PURPOSE: Acute neurovascular imaging including MRA and/or CTA are routinely performed in the emergency departments (ED) for patients who present with suspected transient ischemic attacks (TIA). Given the current emphasis on mitigating the rising cost of health care nationally, and promoting high value practice, we sought to determine 1) the value of acute neurovascular imaging in patients presenting to the ED with TIA-like symptoms, and 2) whether these neurovascular studies led to a difference in management strategies. METHOD: We retrospectively reviewed 398 ED patients who presented with transient neurological deficits and underwent neurovascular imaging from 2015 to 2018. We reviewed diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) and neurovascular results by patient demographics, baseline risk factors, final diagnosis, treatment/management dispositions and three-month follow-up. RESULTS: 28.1% (112/398) of patients were diagnosed with true TIA, whereas 71.9% patients were deemed to have a non-vascular etiology. Total rates of positive MRA/CTA for severe intracranial (>50%) and cervical vessel (>70%) stenosis were 10.5% and 1.7%. Patients with positive DWI scans had significantly higher rates of severe vascular stenosis (24.4% versus 7.8% intracranially and 2.4% versus 0.9% in the neck) compared to those with negative DWI scans. All patients were treated with multi-pronged medical therapies with no immediate surgical intervention. A follow-up stroke was equally likely in TIA patients with or without severe vascular stenosis. CONCLUSIONS: In patients presenting with TIA-like symptoms and DWI negative scans, the overall rate of positive neurovascular studies is very low. Triaging with DWI can reduce the frequency of unnecessary neurovascular imaging.

Benefits of digital breast tomosynthesis: A lesion-level analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To compare outcome metrics of digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT) breast cancer screening with full-field digital mammogram (FFDM); specifically, to compare recall rates by the type of recalled finding, and to assess if screening with DBT versus FFDM changes biopsy recommendations and if the likelihood of malignancy varied by lesion type, if detected on DBT or FFDM screening mammogram. METHODS: The outcomes of 22,055 FFDM and DBT screening mammograms were retrospectively reviewed. The exams were performed at an academic institution between August 2015 and September 2016. Performance of screening with FFDM versus DBT was compared in terms of recall rate and percentage of recalled lesions resulting in a cancer diagnosis, with subset analyses performed for specific mammographic findings. RESULTS: The recall rate was 10.6% for FFDM and 8.0% for DBT (p < 0.001). Architectural distortion was more likely to be recalled on DBT screening than FFDM (p = 0.002), and was associated with an increased likelihood of malignancy (p = 0.008). Asymmetries were less likely to be recalled on DBT than FFDM (p < 0.001) screening mammogram, but more likely to be recommended for biopsy when detected on DBT. Calcifications more frequently required short-term follow-up or biopsy on both DBT and FFDM. CONCLUSIONS: DBT screening confers an advantage in detection of architectural distortion representing malignancy. Recall rate of asymmetries are reduced with screening DBT, probably due to reduction of tissue superimposition. Calcifications pose a particularly difficult diagnostic challenge for breast imagers, regardless of screening mammogram type.

Comparing the short-term cost-effectiveness of epidural steroid injections and medical management alone for discogenic lumbar radiculopathy.

OBJECTIVE: Epidural steroid injections (ESIs) are a commonly used treatment strategy for low back pain and lumbar radiculopathy. However, their cost-effectiveness and ability to mediate long-term quality of life (QOL) improvements is debated. We sought to analyze the cost-effectiveness of lumbar epidural steroid injections (ESIs) compared to medical management alone for patients with lumbar radiculopathy and low back pain. PATIENTS AND METHODS: QOL outcomes were prospectively collected at 3- and 6-months following initial consultation. Metrics included the EuroQol-5 Dimensions (EQ-5D) questionnaire, the Pain Disability Questionnaire (PDQ), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Cost estimations were based on Medicare national payment amounts, median income, and missed workdays. A cost-utility analysis was performed based upon cost estimations and a cost-effectiveness threshold of $100,000/Quality-adjusted life year (QALY). RESULTS: One hundred forty-one patients met our inclusion/exclusion criteria; 89 received ESI and 52 were treated with medical management alone. Both cohorts showed improved EQ-5D scores at 3 months but were similar to one another: ESI (ΔEQ-5D = 0.06; p = 0.03) and medical-alone (ΔEQ-5D = 0.07; p = 0.03). No significant difference was seen between groups for total costs ($2,190 vs. $1,772; p = 0.18) or cost-utility ratios ($38,710/QALY vs. $27,313/QALY; p = 0.73). At both the 3-month and 6-month endpoints, absolute differences in cost-utility was driven by overall costs as opposed to QALY gains. Medical management alone was more cost effective at both points owing to lower expenditures, however these differences were not significant. No benefits were seen in either group on the EQ-5D or any of the patient reported outcomes at the 6-month time point. CONCLUSION: ESIs were not cost-effective at either the 3-month or 6-month follow-up period. At 3 months, ESIs provide similar improvements in QOL outcomes relative to medical management and at similar costs. At 6 months, neither ESIs nor conservative management provide significant improvements in QOL outcomes.

"Worst Headache of Life" in a Migraineur: Marginal Value of Emergency Department CT Scanning.

PURPOSE: The ACR Appropriateness Criteria recommend performing noncontrast head CT (NCCT) for patients with sudden severe headache ("worst headache of life" [WHOL] or "thunderclap headache" [TCH]). The aim of this study was to assess the value of NCCT scanning in patients with known migraine histories and WHOL or TCH. The hypothesis was that there would be little utility in performing emergency department (ED) NCCT scans in migraineurs without other red flags, even if they had WHOL or TCH. METHODS: The ED NCCT scans of all patients reporting WHOL or TCH who had established diagnoses of migraine were retrospectively reviewed over a 5-year period. Patients without known intracranial pathology, cancer, or immunocompromising disease or recent head trauma were included as the main study group. For comparison, patients with any of those factors were included as the comparison group. Scans were graded as (1) normal, (2) minor unimportant findings, (3) findings requiring intervention or follow-up, or (4) critical. RESULTS: Two hundred twenty-four patients with the chief symptom of WHOL or TCH and a history of migraine who underwent ED NCCT were studied. In the main study group, no patients had grade 4 imaging findings (0%), one had a false-positive grade 3 finding (0.8%), and there were no cases of subarachnoid hemorrhage (0%). In the comparison group, six patients had grade 4 imaging findings (6.5%) and three had grade 3 findings (3.3%). CONCLUSIONS: NCCT in known migraineurs with WHOL or TCH who do not have intracranial pathology, cancer, immunocompromising disease, or recent head trauma yielded no critical findings. Therefore, the value of scanning these patients is questionable.

Quality of life changes after lumbar decompression in patients with tandem spinal stenosis.

OBJECTIVE: Tandem spinal stenosis (TSS) is a degenerative spinal condition characterized by spinal canal narrowing at 2 or more distinct spinal levels. It is an aging-related condition that is likely to increase as the population ages, but which remains poorly described in the literature. Here we sought to determine the impact of primary lumbar decompression on quality-of-life (QOL) outcomes in patients with symptomatic TSS. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 803 patients with clinical and radiographic evidence of TSS treated between 2008 and 2014 with a minimum 2-year follow-up. The records of patients with clinical and radiographic evidence of concurrent cervical and lumbar stenosis were reviewed. Prospectively gathered QOL data, including the Pain Disability Questionnaire (PDQ), Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), EuroQOL-5 Dimensions (EQ-5D), and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) for low back pain, were assessed at the 6-month, 1-year, and 2-year follow-ups. RESULTS: Of 803 identified patients (mean age 66.2 years; 46.9% male), 19.6% underwent lumbar decompression only, 14.1% underwent cervical + lumbar decompression, and 66.4% underwent conservative management only. Baseline VAS scores were similar across all groups, but patients undergoing conservative management had better baseline QOL scores on all other measures. Both surgical cohorts experienced significant improvements in the VAS, PDQ, and EQ-5D at all time points; patients in the cervical + lumbar cohort also had significant improvement in the PHQ-9. Conservatively managed patients showed no significant improvement in QOL scores at any follow-up interval. CONCLUSION: Lumbar decompression with or without cervical decompression improves low back pain and QOL outcomes in patients with TSS. The decision to prioritize lumbar decompression is therefore unlikely to adversely affect long-term quality-of-life improvements.

Cost and quality of life outcome analysis of postoperative infections after posterior lumbar decompression and fusion.

Surgical site infections (SSI) following spine procedures are serious and costly complications that may reduce patient quality of life (QOL). Deep SSIs may also extend hospitalizations and require surgical debridement or antibiotic therapy, increasing costs to both patients and the healthcare system. Here we sought to evaluate the effect of deep SSI on care cost and QOL outcomes in patients undergoing posterior lumbar decompression and fusion. To do so we performed a retrospective study of patients undergoing lumbar decompression and fusion between 2008 and 2012. Patients experiencing postoperative deep SSI were matched to controls not experiencing a deep SSI. Included patients had prospectively-gathered QOL outcome measures collected preoperatively and at 6 months postoperatively. Health resource utilization was recorded from patient electronic medical records over the 6-month follow-up. Direct costs were estimated using Medicare national payment amounts. Indirect costs were based on missed work days and patient income. We found both cohorts experienced significant improvements in QOL scores following surgery, and there were no significant differences between the cohorts. The average total cost was significantly higher in the infected cohort compared to controls ($37,009 vs. $16,227; p < 0.0001). Compared to controls, patients experiencing deep SSI had greater costs in each of the following categories: hospitalizations (p < 0.01), office visits (p = 0.03), imaging (p < 0.01), and medications (p < 0.01). Among those experiencing deep SSI, there are significant increases in costs, with minimal long-term impact on QOL outcomes as compared with controls at the six-month follow-up.