Measurement of the lengths of different sections of the upper airway and their predictive factors.

BACKGROUND: No studies have been conducted to define the lengths of the upper airway's different segments in normal healthy adults. AIMS/OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the length of the subglottis and extrathoracic trachea and the factors affecting it. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This was an observational retrospective review study. Included 102 adult patients who underwent CT scan during the quiet inspiration phase of the upper airway. RESULTS: The results revealed significant positive linear relationships between height and both anterior and posterior subglottic measurements (p < 0.001). Additionally, a statistically significant, moderately strong negative correlation between age and extrathoracic tracheal measurements (p > 0.001) was observed. Men exhibited longer anterior (p < 0.001) and posterior (p > 0.001) subglottic measurements. In both sexes, the average length of the anterior subglottis was 14.16 (standard deviation [SD]: 2.72) mm, posterior subglottis was 14.51 (SD: 2.85) mm and extrathoracic trachea was 66.37 (SD: 13.71) mm. CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE: We concluded that a normal healthy adult's anterior subglottis length is 6.3-19.3 mm (mean: 14.16 [SD: 2.72] mm), posterior subglottis length is 6.1-20.0 mm (mean: 14.51 [SD: 2.85] mm) and extrathoracic trachea length is 25.2-98.5 mm (mean: 66.37 [SD: 13.71] mm). Age, height and sex affected the upper airway length.

Correction: Ashraf et al. Inhibition of Microtubule Affinity Regulating Kinase 4 by Metformin: Exploring the Neuroprotective Potential of Antidiabetic Drug through Spectroscopic and Computational Approaches. Molecules 2022, 27, 4652.

The updated affiliation information can be seen in the affiliation part of this correction [...].

Inhibition of Microtubule Affinity Regulating Kinase 4 by Metformin: Exploring the Neuroprotective Potential of Antidiabetic Drug through Spectroscopic and Computational Approaches.

Microtubule affinity regulating kinase 4 (MARK4) regulates the mechanism of microtubules by its ability to phosphorylate the microtubule-associated proteins (MAP's). MARK4 is known for its major role in tau phosphorylation via phosphorylating Ser262 residue in the KXGS motif, which results in the detachment of tau from microtubule. In lieu of this vital role in tau pathology, a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD), MARK4 is a druggable target to treat AD and other neurodegenerative disorders (NDs). There is growing evidence that NDs and diabetes are connected with many pieces of literature demonstrating a high risk of developing AD in diabetic patients. Metformin (Mtf) has been a drug in use against type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) for a long time; however, recent studies have established its therapeutic effect in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), namely AD, Parkinson's disease (PD) and amnestic mild cognitive impairment. In this study, we have explored the MARK4 inhibitory potential of Mtf, employing in silico and in vitro approaches. Molecular docking demonstrated that Mtf binds to MARK4 with a significant affinity of -6.9 kcal/mol forming interactions with binding pocket's critical residues. Additionally, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation provided an atomistic insight into the binding of Mtf with MARK4. ATPase assay of MARK4 in the presence of Mtf shows that it inhibits MARK4 with an IC50 = 7.05 µM. The results of the fluorescence binding assay demonstrated significant binding of MARK4 with a binding constant of 0.6 × 106 M-1. The present study provides an additional axis towards the utilization of Mtf as MARK4 inhibitor targeting diabetes with NDs.

Obstructive Jaundice Caused by Metastatic Neuroendocrine Tumor of the Ampulla of Vater in a Young Adult: A Case Report.

Introduction: Ampullary neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are usually diagnosed in the 5th-6th decades of life, and no cases were reported in <20 years of age. We report a rare case, presenting at a very young age, of well-differentiated NET involving the ampulla of Vater with lymph node metastasis. Case Presentation: An 18-year-old man presented with a 3-month history of upper abdominal pain and jaundice. Abdominal ultrasound showed a dilated common bile duct, and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography revealed two duodenal polypoid lesions, one of them overlying the ampulla of Vater, with an erythematous and ulcerated surface. Histopathological examination confirmed the diagnosis of NET grade 1. Octreotide scan revealed 2 para-aortic lymph nodes with intense radiotracer uptake. The patient had undergone Whipple surgery with para-aortic lymph node dissection. Histopathological examination of the surgical specimens was confirmatory of NET grade 2 and paraganglioma in a few of the dissected lymph nodes. Postoperatively, the patient was kept on monthly intramuscular octreotide. Follow-up gallium-68 DOTATATE is unremarkable apart from an avid left para-aortic lymph node which is showing stability over 12 months of follow-up. Conclusion: This case demonstrates that NETs of the ampulla of Vater can present at a very young age. Radical surgical excision with extended lymph node dissection and postoperative octreotide is associated with better patient outcomes and survival.

The effect of p53 on the activity of NRF2 and NDRG2 genes through apoptotic pathway in IDH-wildtype glioblastoma.

BACKGROUND: Tumor suppressor (p53) acts to integrate multiple stress signals into diverse antiproliferative responses. Its potential to transactivate or downregulate genes through apoptotic pathway in IDH-wildtype glioblastoma has never been explored. METHODS: A group of twenty patients diagnosed with IDH-wildtype glioblastoma, were tested for p53 expression and NDRG2/NRF2 genes activity through protein and gene profiling assays. The connotation between these elements has been explored. RESULTS: The mean patients' age was 64-years. All tumors were IDH-wildtype. p53 was expressed in 12 tumors and absent in 8 tumors. The activity of NDRG2 gene was downregulated in all cases. The activity of NRF2 gene was upregulated in 17 tumors and downregulated in 3 tumors. There was a significant statistical difference in PFS among tumors exhibiting different levels of p53 expression and NDRG2 gene activity [p-value= 0.025], in which 12 tumors with downregulated NDRG2 expression and positive p53 expression had earlier tumor recurrence. This statistical difference in PFS was insignificant when we compared p53 expression with NRF2 gene activity [p-value= 0.079]. CONCLUSIONS: During cell cycle arrest at G2 phase, p53 expression in IDH-wildtype glioblastoma in elderly individuals, coupled with the downregulation of NDRG2 gene activity, led to an aberrant increase in tumor cell proliferation and accelerated tumor recurrence. However, the influence of p53 on NRF2 gene activity was found to be insignificant.

Bilateral maxillary silent sinus syndrome: A case report and literature review.

Silent sinus syndrome refers to a spontaneous enophthalmos caused by maxillary sinus collapse without any symptomatic sinonasal illnesses. Its prevalence is almost entirely unilateral. The authors report a patient with a bilateral silent sinus syndrome managed successfully by middle meatal antrostomies. This case brings attention to recognizing bilateral silent sinus syndrome. Because of its bilateral involvement, the facial disfigurement might be recognized late due to the symmetrical presentation. This article highlights the pathophysiology and reports the detailed course of such a rare disease. The balloon dilatation is promising as a newly described treatment modality in a patient with silent sinus syndrome, although more long-term data on its outcome is needed.

Outcomes of Endoscopic Resection in Pediatric Skull Base Chordoma: A Systematic Review.

The endoscopic approach has been recommended as a primary option for treating chordomas, and it is associated with better resection rates and fewer surgical complications than transcranial surgery. This review aimed to assess the long-term consequences and evidence in the current literature regarding the endoscopic approach's efficacy in treating skull-base chordoma in children. A systematic review was conducted based on the PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE databases to examine the clinical outcomes of endoscopic endonasal surgery for pediatric skull base chordoma tumors. The review included studies published in English that employed specific research designs and reported on pediatric patients with skull base chordoma. Of the 268 studies initially considered, 25 met our eligibility criteria and were included in the final analysis. The average age of the patients was 11.5 years, with approximately equal number of males and females. The endoscopic endonasal approach (EEA) was the most commonly used modality. Gross total resection (GTR) was achieved in 62.7% of patients, while 18.09% had a subtotal resection (STR), and 13.83% had near-total resection only. Most patients showed significant to moderate improvement from their baseline condition and had no recurrence during their follow-up. Our findings further endorse that the endoscopic approach is a viable primary treatment option for pediatric skull base chordoma.

A Literature Review on Cochlear Implant Activation: From Weeks to Hours.

Objectives: The present literature review discusses the chronological evolution of Cochlear Implant (CI) activation and its definition among the relevant studies in the literature. In addition, the benefits of standardizing the early activation process in implantation centers worldwide are discussed. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted in the major databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Embase to retrieve all the relevant articles that reported early activation approaches following CI. Results: The evolution of the timing of early activation after CI has been remarkable in the past few years. Some studies reported the feasibility of early activation 1 day after the CI surgery in their users. Conclusions: Within the last decade, some studies have been published to report the feasibility and outcomes of its early activation. However, the process of early activation was not adequately defined, and no apparent guidelines could be found in the literature.

The Short-Term Outcome of Seizure and Anti-epileptic Use After Cranial Surgery: A Retrospective Record Review.

Objectives The study aims to correlate craniotomies and their effect on epileptic activity and to assess the impact of prophylaxis anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) used to prevent seizure activity after craniotomy. Method This was a mono-center retrospective review of patients undergoing craniotomy from 2010-2021 at King Abdulaziz University Hospital (KAUH), a tertiary center in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The patients were divided into two groups depending on preoperative anti-epileptic drug usage and the occurrence of seizures after the surgery. Out of 192, 24.6% had a seizure before the surgery, while the rest reported no seizure activity. We used descriptive statistics to categorize the study population and applied t-test and chi-square to compare different groups and outcomes. Results One-hundred-ninety-two patients were studied: 24.6% had preoperative seizure history and 82.1% were on prophylactic AEDs. The incidence of post-craniotomy seizures was 7.6% in patients with anti-epileptic prophylaxis and 2.7% in those without prophylaxis before the surgery. Almost three-quarters of the patients (72.4%) had surgery for brain tumor resection and redo-craniotomy while the rest (25.5%) were for intracranial hemorrhages (p=0.052). On multivariate analysis, the primary predictor of post-craniotomy seizures was the preoperative history of seizures. Finally, the administration of AEDs does not prevent seizure occurrence after craniotomy (p=0.153). Moreover, the type of prophylaxis and reason for the surgery played no significant role in seizure occurrence. Conclusion Post-craniotomy seizures were common, and preoperative AEDs for primary seizure prevention were not associated with a lower incidence of seizures after craniotomy.

Prognostic Factors Affecting Postsurgical Outcomes of Adult Patients with Intracranial Meningioma: A Retrospective Study.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the prognostic factors of surgical resection for meningioma and their relationship with patient outcomes. METHODS: This retrospective study included 53 patients (≥16 years), who underwent surgical resection for intracranial meningioma at the King Abdulaziz University Hospital from 2012 to 2022. Data regarding tumor location and size, histopathological type, chief complaint, chief complaint duration, admission date, diagnosis, operation, and discharge date were collected. These data were subjected to univariate and bivariate analyses to investigate the relationship between the postsurgical outcomes of the patients with meningioma and the variables of age at surgery, sex, length of hospitalization, chief complaint, Glasgow outcome score, World Health Organization histopathological classification, body mass index, tumor size, and nature of surgical resection. RESULTS: The mean age of our study cohort was 49.09 ± 12.64 years, with a female preponderance (75.5%) and mean body mass index of 29.31 ± 5.52 kg/m2. length of hospitalization (mean: 26.92 ± 54.88 days) demonstrated a significant (P = 0.012) impact on prognosis after surgery. In addition, convexity meningiomas (21.2%), which were observed in the maximum number of cases, and mean tumor volume (28.67 ± 48.85 mm) were significantly (P = 0.049) associated with the outcome. Most patients (78.8%) underwent total surgical resection, and histopathological examinations revealed a higher frequency of grade 1 than grade 2 tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Short duration of hospitalization and superficial location of the tumor are associated with optimal outcomes after surgical resection for patients with meningioma.

Surgical treatment of hemifacial spasms: how to predict failure and complications through a series of 200 patients.

Primary hemifacial spasm (pHFS) is a benign but disabling movement disorder caused by a neurovascular conflict involving the facial nerve. Surgical treatment by microvascular decompression (MVD) is the most effective therapeutic. Predictors of surgical failure and surgical complications are still lacking. The aim of this study is to identify such predictors through the retrospective analysis of a series of 200 consecutive patients. All patients who underwent MVD for pHFS from January 1991 to December 2017 were included. All patients had at least two years follow-up. In addition to the demographic data, the outcome and the complications were collected. The primary outcome analysis showed that 7.5% of patients had a recurrence. Multiple and AICA related neurovascular conflicts were statistically associated to a higher recurrence rate after MVD (respectively p < 0.001 and p = 0.02). Permanent facial palsy occurred in 2.5% of patients, hearing loss in 9.0% (2.0% of complete unilateral impairment) and dizziness in 2.5%. The risk of each of these peripheral neurological impairments was statistically increased by a long duration between the first pHFS symptom and the MVD (p < 0.001). In case of recurrence, a second MDV was offered. Long term follow-up showed that all patients had a complete resolution of the HFS. Post-operative complication rate was not significantly increased after a second MVD. Multiple and AICA related neurovascular conflicts are associated to a higher risk of surgical failure. When a pHFS recurrence occurs, a second surgical procedure is associated with excellent outcome without significant increase of post-operative complications and should therefore be recommended.

Description of the Quality of Life of Patients With Subarachnoid Hemorrhage at King Abdulaziz University Hospital in Jeddah.

Objective Stroke is a serious medical condition that causes long-term morbidity and disability. There are two types of stroke, i.e., ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) accounts for 5% of all stroke cases worldwide. Stroke survivors may experience cognitive dysfunction in many forms. Evidence regarding the quality of life (QoL) of patients post-SAH in the Middle East is limited. Therefore, this study aims to describe the quality of life in patients with SAH at the King Abdulaziz University Hospital (KAUH) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, from April 2021 to October 2021. Methods We included patients who were diagnosed with SAH ≤ 10 years prior at our hospital and were admitted within 72 hours of the ictus. Patients were included using non-probability convenience sampling without randomization. We collected the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), World Federation of Neurosurgeons (WFNS), and Modified Glasgow Outcome Scale (MGOS) scores. Results We included 48 patients (mean age: 49.78 ± 19.44 years, male proportion: 62.5%). More than 50% of the participants had comorbidities. The mean baseline GCS, WFNS, and MGOS scores at admission were 12.62 ± 3.56, 2.19 ± 1.54, and 3.58 ± 1.67, respectively. Women had significantly higher MGOS scores than men (p ≤ 0.05). Death was significantly associated with low MGOS scores (p ≤ 0.05). Age showed a non-significant negative correlation with the MGOS score (r = - 0.17, p-value = 0.24). Finally, the MGOS score was significantly correlated with the baseline GCS and WFNS scores at admission (r = 0.68 and r = - 0.67, respectively). Conclusion Our findings demonstrated that a low MGOS score, which indicates more comorbidities, greatly affects the quality of life of patients with SAH. Moreover, the baseline GCS score was the best prognostic predictor for patients with SAH.

Primary healthcare reform for chronic conditions in countries with high or very high human development index: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To address the growing burden of chronic disease globally, many countries have developed a national policy for primary healthcare reform. In some countries with high and very high human development index, evaluations of the implementation of these reforms have been published. To date, there has been no systematic review of these evaluations. The objectives of this review are to identify: (a) the vision for primary healthcare; (b) the features of primary healthcare reforms; and (c) evaluation findings of primary healthcare reforms. METHODS: A systematic literature review was conducted guided by the PRISMA statement. We searched for academic articles and grey literature from 1 March 2008 to 1 September 2020. Screening and data extraction were conducted by two authors. Descriptive analysis and narrative synthesis were applied. RESULTS: A vision for integrated primary healthcare shifting chronic disease management from specialist hospital services to primary care was found to require new organization and funding models such as collaborative primary healthcare networks and commissioning along with shared governance across health sectors. The need for general practitioner leadership and engagement to support primary healthcare reform was identified. Although there was evidence of barriers in progressing primary healthcare reform, evaluation results showed some positive outcomes, most notably shifts in services towards increased primary care access and utilization. DISCUSSION: A challenge in undertaking the review was the heterogeneity of articles with little consistency in how primary healthcare reform was evaluated and reported on across countries. Evaluation of national health reforms involves complex system-wide projects and is an area that needs further exploration and discussion to determine the most appropriate methodologies for collecting and analysing large-scale data with consideration for service and health outcomes.

Atrophic Rhinitis Secondary to an Infection of Unusual Bacteria: A Case Report and Literature Review.

Clinically, atrophic rhinitis (AR) is well recognized. We present the case of a patient diagnosed with AR. Sphingomonas paucimobilis, an uncommon bacterial pathogen, has been isolated in nasal cultures. This study discusses the microorganisms, causing AR. According to previous research, these infections have been associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Due to the limited knowledge on the disease, the diagnosis is frequently delayed. Thus, frequent monitoring and treatment are needed to avoid complications. This rare type of infection should be suspected in patients presenting with nasal blockage, including those from non-endemic areas.

Long-Term Quality of Life (5-15 Years Post-Thyroidectomy) of Thyroid Carcinoma Patients in Two Tertiary Care Hospitals.

Purpose Early detection of thyroid cancer has reduced mortality and improved survival of patients. Increased detection has raised the incidence of early stage disease. Some physicians underestimate the suffering of these patients due to the concept of "good cancer." The unmet needs of the survivors still need to be addressed. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the long-term quality of life (QOL) of thyroid cancer survivors. Methods A cross-sectional telephone survey of 211 thyroid cancer survivors who underwent thyroidectomy performed between 2006 and 2016 in two academic tertiary care hospitals was conducted using a validated Arabic version of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer head and neck cancer specific quality of life questionnaire (EROTC QLQ) - H&N43 questionnaire using a scale of 1-4, with 4 being most severe. Results On almost half (48.5%) of patients, thyroidectomy was performed in 2013 or earlier. Patients' perceptions of problems were very low, with a mean score of 1.56 ± 0.7). Worry about the test results (2.37 ± 1.19), future health (2.36 ± 1.22), tingling or numbness in hands or feet (2.32 ± 1.22), pain in the shoulder (2.04 ± 1.18), and dry, itchy skin (2.04 ± 1.18) were the only items that received a mean score of more than 2. No statistically significant differences in patients' problems were observed according to either tumor histopathology or type of thyroidectomy. Conclusion The overall QOL score for the patients was very good. The persistent problems identified need to be addressed in the long-term follow-up. Survivorship care plans need to be developed incorporating proper interventions.

Pattern of neurosurgical practice at a university hospital in KSA during COVID-19 pandemic.

Objective: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic affected both medical services as well as hospital admissions. Scholars have attempted to study the effect of the pandemic on the services of multiple specialities. In this study, we aim to examine the pandemic's impact on the neurosurgical service provided at the King Abdulaziz University Hospital in Jeddah over an eight-month period. Methods: In this retrospective, single-centre case series study, we included all the consecutive neurosurgical patients who underwent a surgical intervention in the 8-month period starting on 3rd March, 2020 and ending on 3rd November, 2020. The demographics, diagnosis, surgery type, priority category, and mortality data of the patients were collected. Results: A total of 147 patients underwent surgery during the study period. The mean age was 30.8 years. Forty-nine percent of the study population were men. Oncology (31.3%) and hydrocephalus (23.8%) recorded the highest number of cases. More than half of the cases were Priority 1 (immediate and within 24 h). The mortality rate was 4.1% among all the performed cases. Conclusion: By describing this local neurosurgical experience during the COVID-19 pandemic, we hope to bring out some of the difficulties we encountered and improve what we learned during the pandemic.

Emergency Medicine Physicians' Views on Providing Unnecessary Management in the Emergency Department.

Purpose: To assess the views of emergency medicine physicians (EMPs) on the practice of providing unnecessary medical management in the emergency department. Methods: All EMPs in Saudi Arabia were approached to participate in this cross-sectional study. A self-administered online survey that collected the participants' demographic information and opinions regarding the unnecessary management provided by EMPs in Saudi Arabia was conducted between December 2020 and February 2021. SPSS 22.0 was used to analyze the data. Results: A total of 181 EMPs returned the questionnaire. More than 80% of the participants believed that EMPs order unnecessary tests or procedures at least a few times per week. The major reasons for ordering unnecessary medical tests or procedures were "concern about malpractice issues" (60.8%), "not having enough time with a patient for meaningful discussion" (47%), and "just to be safe" (46.4%). More than 55% of the respondents also believed that EMPs are in the best position to address the problem of unnecessary testing. Conclusion: Most of the EMPs who participated in this study recognized that ordering unnecessary tests is a serious problem that happens on a daily basis. Many factors and reasons were described by the participants, and multiple possible solutions were suggested to help overcome the issue. Evaluating physicians' perspectives on the issue is a key step in addressing the problem and implementing appropriate interventions.

Performance of Children With Donnai-Barrow Syndrome After Cochlear Implantation: A Case Report.

Donnai-Barrow syndrome (DBS) is a rare autosomal recessive hereditary disorder that affects a variety of body systems. One of the most common symptoms in DBS patients is severe bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. The objective of this report is to highlight the performance of such patients after receiving cochlear implants as a management of their hearing loss. We reviewed the medical records of two cousins diagnosed with DBS before and after cochlear implantation, with a particular focus on their auditory and language performance. After receiving the cochlear implant, both patients showed substantial progress in auditory and speech perception, as well as their intelligence quotients, allowing them to join mainstream schools. In conclusion, our findings showed that cochlear implantation can be considered an ideal approach for the management of DBS patients who suffer from bilateral sensorineural hearing loss.

Survival and Epidemiologic Trends of Lymphomas in Saudi Arabia: A 10-Year Report from a Tertiary Care Hospital.

Background: The current trends in lymphoma cases from Saudi Arabia and their long-term survival are unknown. This study was conducted to evaluate the trends of lymphoma diagnoses and survival from a major tertiary care hospital in Saudi Arabia. Methods: This retrospective study included all new cases of lymphoma diagnosed in adults (age ≥18 years) at King Saud University Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, from 2008 to 2018, as identified from the Saudi Cancer Registry. Data on the demographics and clinical characteristics were collected, the survival outcomes were estimated, and multivariate analysis of the overall survival was calculated. Results: A total of 422 patients were included (median age: 46 years). The number new cases of lymphoma diagnosed variably increased over the study period: From 28 (7%) cases in 2009 to 48 (11%) in 2018. The most common lymphoma was diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (175; 41%): and extranodal site was GI involvement (33.5%). In terms of survival, 79% were alive at the last follow-up. On multivariable analysis, the hazard ratio (HR) for patients aged ≥60 years was 3.44 (95% CI: 2-5.9; P = 0.0000069), adjusted for lactate dehydrogenase level (LDH) and disease stage. For advanced-stage disease and high LDH, the HR was 4.2 (95% CI: 1.5-11.8, P = 0.00637) and 0.5 (95% CI: 0.28-0.97; P = 0.04106), respectively. Conclusions: The lymphoma trend in the Saudi Arabian population showed variable increase in cases over the study period, with most patients presenting with advanced-stage disease and at a younger age. The overall survival was comparable with studies from Western countries.

Unravelling Binding of Human Serum Albumin with Galantamine: Spectroscopic, Calorimetric, and Computational Approaches.

Human serum albumin (HSA), an abundant plasma protein, binds to various ligands, acting as a transporter for numerous endogenous and exogenous substances. Galantamine (GAL), an alkaloid, treats cognitive decline in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease and other memory impairments. A vital step in pharmacological profiling involves the interaction of plasma protein with the drugs, and this serves as an essential platform for pharmaceutical industry advancements. This study is carried out to understand the binding mechanism of GAL with HSA using computational and experimental approaches. Molecular docking revealed that GAL preferentially occupies Sudlow's site I, i.e., binds to subdomain IIIA. The results unveiled that GAL binding does not induce any conformational change in HSA and hence does not compromise the functionality of HSA. Molecular dynamics simulation (250 ns) deciphered the stability of the HSA-GAL complex. We performed the fluorescence binding and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) to analyze the actual binding of GAL with HSA. The results suggested that GAL binds to HSA with a significant binding affinity. ITC measurements also delineated thermodynamic parameters associated with the binding of GAL to HSA. Altogether, the present study deciphers the binding mechanism of GAL with HSA.