Engineering microvascular networks using a KLF2 reporter to probe flow-dependent endothelial cell function.

Shear stress generated by the flow of blood in the vasculature is a potent regulator of endothelial cell function and vascular structure. While vascular responses to flow are complex and context-dependent, endothelial cell signaling in response to shear stress induced by laminar flows is coordinated by the transcription factor KLF2. The flow-dependent expression of KLF2 in endothelial cells is associated with a quiescent, anti-inflammatory phenotype and has been well characterized in two-dimensional systems but has not been studied in three-dimensional in vitro systems. Here we develop engineered microvascular networks (MVNs) that incorporate a KLF2-based endothelial cell flow sensor within a microfluidic chip, apply continuous flow using an attached microfluidic pump, and study the effects of this flow on vascular structure and function. We found that application of flow to MVNs for 48 h resulted in increased expression of the KLF2 reporter, larger vessel diameters, and decreased vascular branching and resistance. Notably, vessel diameters after the application of flow were independent of initial MVN morphologies. Finally, we found that MVNs exposed to flow have improved vascular barrier function and decreased platelet adhesion. MVNs with KLF2-based flow sensors represent a novel, powerful tool for evaluating the structural and functional effects of flow on engineered three-dimensional vascular systems.

Impact of Fibrinogen, Fibrin Thrombi, and Thrombin on Cancer Cell Extravasation Using In Vitro Microvascular Networks.

A bidirectional association exists between metastatic dissemination and the hypercoagulable state associated with many types of cancer. As such, clinical studies have provided evidence that markers associated with elevated levels of coagulation and fibrinolysis correlate with decreased patient survival. However, elucidating the mechanisms underpinning the effects of different components of the coagulation system on metastasis formation is challenging both in animal models and 2D models lacking the complex cellular interactions necessary to model both thrombosis and metastasis. Here, an in vitro, 3D, microvascular model for observing the formation of fibrin thrombi is described, which is in turn used to study how different aspects of the hypercoagulable state associated with cancer affect the endothelium. Using this platform, cancer cells expressing ICAM-1 are shown to form a fibrinogen-dependent bridge and transmigrate through the endothelium more effectively. Cancer cells are also demonstrated to interact with fibrin thrombi, using them to adhere, spread, and enhance their extravasation efficiency. Finally, thrombin is also shown to enhance cancer cell extravasation. This system presents a physiologically relevant model of fibrin clot formation in the human microvasculature, enabling in-depth investigation of the cellular interactions between cancer cells and the coagulation system affecting cancer cell extravasation.

Engineering microvascular networks using a KLF2 reporter to probe flow-dependent endothelial cell function.

Shear stress generated by the flow of blood in the vasculature is a potent regulator of endothelial cell phenotype and vascular structure. While vascular responses to flow are complex and context-dependent, endothelial cell signaling in response to shear stress induced by laminar flows is coordinated by the transcription factor KLF2. The expression of KLF2 in endothelial cells is associated with a quiescent, anti-inflammatory phenotype and has been well characterized in two-dimensional systems, but has not been studied in three-dimensional in vitro systems. Here we develop engineered microvascular networks (MVNs) with a KLF2-based endothelial cell sensor within a microfluidic chip, apply continuous flow using an attached microfluidic pump, and study the effects of this flow on vascular structure and function. We found that culture of MVNs exposed to flow for 48 hours that resulted in increased expression of the KLF2-GFP-reporter display larger vessel diameters and decreased vascular branching and resistance. Additionally, vessel diameters after the application of flow were independent of initial MVN morphologies. Finally, we found that MVNs exposed to flow have improved vascular barrier function and decreased platelet adhesion. The MVNs with KLF2-based flow sensors represent a powerful tool for evaluating the structural and functional effects of flow on engineered three-dimensional vascular systems.

Filamented Light (FLight) Biofabrication of Highly Aligned Tissue-Engineered Constructs.

Cell-laden hydrogels used in tissue engineering generally lack sufficient 3D topographical guidance for cells to mature into aligned tissues. A new strategy called filamented light (FLight) biofabrication rapidly creates hydrogels composed of unidirectional microfilament networks, with diameters on the length scale of single cells. Due to optical modulation instability, a light beam is divided optically into FLight beams. Local polymerization of a photoactive resin is triggered, leading to local increase in refractive index, which itself creates self-focusing waveguides and further polymerization of photoresin into long hydrogel microfilaments. Diameter and spacing of the microfilaments can be tuned from 2 to 30 µm by changing the coherence length of the light beam. Microfilaments show outstanding cell instructive properties with fibroblasts, tenocytes, endothelial cells, and myoblasts, influencing cell alignment, nuclear deformation, and extracellular matrix deposition. FLight is compatible with multiple types of photoresins and allows for biofabrication of centimeter-scale hydrogel constructs with excellent cell viability within seconds (<10 s per construct). Multidirectional microfilaments are achievable within a single hydrogel construct by changing the direction of FLight projection, and complex multimaterial/multicellular tissue-engineered constructs are possible by sequentially exchanging the cell-laden photoresin. FLight offers a transformational approach to developing anisotropic tissues using photo-crosslinkable biomaterials.