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The concept of "one health" applies perfectly to human health and animal health because many diseases are zoonoses. There are many historical examples of effective collaboration between veterinary medicine and human medicine in the development of the first vaccines used in the world (smallpox, rabies, tetanus, diphtheria, tuberculosis, etc.). But when a new disease appears in animals, the risk of possible transmission to humans is difficult to estimate. In the latter case, the loss of consumer confidence in the face of scientific uncertainties can cause a health crisis (examples of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and H5N1 avian plague). But the most serious crisis that we have known since early 2020 is Covid-19 pandemic, which confirms that the modification of the ecosystems of certain wild species such as the horseshoe bats can have significant consequences for the public health. Animals infected with Covid-19 have been contaminated by humans but we cannot currently exclude an animal reservoir risk for SARS-CoV-2 which has circulated around the world.
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Coronaviruses are RNA viruses classified into Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus. Their name comes from their conformation with the observation of spicules forming a sort of crown. Coronaviruses seem to come from bats, and more particularly Alphacoronaviruses and Betacoronaviruses (the genus where zoonoses are observed), while birds are the source of Gammacoronaviruses and Deltacoronaviruses. The first coronavirus identified was that of avian infectious bronchitis in 1931 in the United States, while the first coronaviruses were described in humans only in the 1960s. This is why coronaviruses were mainly known in the veterinary community. Most Alphacoronaviruses are species specific. They can be responsible for serious diseases such as the cat coronavirus, responsible for feline infectious peritonitis, transmissible gastroenteritis (GET) in piglets and porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV). Finally, a deltacoronavirus can be found in both pigs (PD CoV UKU15) and birds.
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Although the emergence of Covid-19 in China has not been clearly elucidated, the hypothesis of an animal origin remains the most likely. It is supported by the presence of the horseshoe bat suspected to be the progenitor of SARS-CoV-2 and by the scarcity of pork, due to African swine fever, diverting consumers to exotic animals of breeding sold in the markets. During this pandemic, several animal species were affected by SARS-CoV-2. Sporadic cases were first reported in pets (dogs and cats) infected by their owners, then in large feline species and apes infected in zoos by their nurses. The most significant human-to-animal transmission has occurred in mink farms, especially in the Netherlands and Denmark, requiring the euthanasia of several million animals, with mink in turn having contaminated men and stray or nomadic cats. The study of natural or experimental transmissions of SARS-CoV-2 has made it possible to identify the most receptive animal species: American minks and raccoon dogs, and to a lesser extent stray or nomadic cats, which could become an animal reservoir due to their sensitivity to this virus and their extending prolificacy. The European Commission decided on May 17, 2021 to strengthen the surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 infections in minks and other mustelids, as well as in raccoon dogs, highlighting stressing that the epidemiological assessment of the risk presented by the he appearance of SARS-CoV-2 in these susceptible species was a public health priority.
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Seafood could be a solution to meet global food demand that will double by 2050. Seafood includes a wide variety of edible marine organisms, except fish and mammals. These are molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms and algae. Like any food, seafood can involve hazards transmitted to humans through food, which affect the health of the consumer. These hazards are both biological (viruses, bacteria, parasites) and chemical (toxins, allergens, chemicals, microplastics). The exposure of populations to these hazards through seafood consumption can be notably explained by their mode of production and the dietary habits. Firstly, the sanitary quality of products reflects the quality of the aquatic environment from which they are taken, which can be contaminated by various types of pollution (faecal or chemical, chronic or accidental). The products are then handled, often treated without using additives or chemical preservatives, and finally distributed without any other means of preservation than refrigeration or freezing. Finally, the dietary habits of seafood favour exposure to certain hazards. Seafood safety must be integrated throughout the food chain, under the responsibility shared by all stakeholders. Seafood safety appears to be an emerging public health issue of global scope, because the sea does not stop at borders.
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We establish multicomponent 1+ injection into a charge breeder electron cyclotron resonance ion source and an associated computational procedure as a noninvasive probe of the electron density n_{e}, average electron energy ãE_{e}ã, and the characteristic times of ionization, charge exchange, and ion confinement of stochastically heated, highly charged plasma. Multicomponent injection allows refining the n_{e}, ãE_{e}ã ranges, reducing experimental uncertainty. Na/K injection is presented as a demonstration. The ãE_{e}ã and n_{e} of a hydrogen discharge are found to be 600_{-300}^{+600}eV and 8_{-3}^{+8}×10^{11}cm^{-3}, respectively. The ionization, charge exchange, and confinement times of high charge state alkali ions are on the order of 1 ms-10 ms.
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Charge breeders were developed more than 20 years ago in the context of radioactive ion beam (RIB) production. The main goal is to boost the charge state of a singly charged RIB to a higher value matching the A/Q of a post-accelerator. In that way, the RIB produced at some tens of keV can efficiently be accelerated to energies in a range of few MeV/u up to several tens of MeV/u, which is of interest for nuclear structure and nuclear astrophysics experiments. Two families of charge breeders have been developed: one based on Electron Cyclotron Resonance Ion Sources (ECRISs) suitable for Continuous Wave (CW) operation and another built around Electron Beam Ion Sources (EBISs) used for pulsed post-accelerators. For many years, experimental studies have been carried out to enhance the charge breeding process and improve the extracted beam quality, i.e., purity, intensity, emittance, and time structure. The evolution of the charge breeders is also closely related to the emergence of new facilities delivering even more exotic beams. Diagnostic tools, such as Faraday cups, beam profile monitors, and emittance scanners, are mandatory to tune the machines and evaluate their performances. However, to go beyond that, a better understanding of plasma physics (in ECRIS) and electron-ion interactions (in EBIS), as well as the 1+ beam characteristics, for instance, energy spread transverse emittance, is needed. Therefore, simulation codes modeling the physics phenomena in both type of charge breeders were developed to support the understanding of experimental outputs and to gain insights into non-observable parameters. Nevertheless, more sophisticated diagnostic tools are required to improve the charge breeding performance and to extend the potential applications toward new RIB facilities. This Review will present the two kinds of charge breeders and their technical evolutions. It will review the diagnostic tools and simulation codes employed for operation and evaluation of the internal physics processes.
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Cumulative ion confinement times are probed by measuring decaying ion current transients in pulsed material injection mode. The method is applied in a charge breeder and conventional ECRIS yielding mutually corroborative results. The cumulative confinement time estimates vary from approximately 2 ms-60 ms with a clear dependence on the ion charge-to-mass ratio-higher charges having longer residence times. The long cumulative confinement times are proposed as a partial explanation to recently observed unexpectedly high ion temperatures. The results are relevant for rare ion beam (RIB) production as the confinement time and the lifetime of stable isotopes can be used for estimating the extracted RIB production efficiency.
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Veterinary Services play a key role in controlling avian influenza by means of surveillance of animal diseases (including zoonoses), early detection and rapid response. To improve animal health worldwide, and in particular to control emerging and re-emerging diseases, it is necessary to build the capacity of Veterinary Services and improve their governance, in accordance with the quality standards in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code, which were adopted by all Member Countries and Territories of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). An OIE evaluation will enable those countries who have requested the evaluation to conduct a gap analysis and, subsequently, to implement national projects for improving the governance of Veterinary Services, possibly with donor aid.
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Saúde Global , Influenza Aviária/prevenção & controle , Medicina Veterinária/organização & administração , Animais , Aves , Medicina Veterinária/normasRESUMO
The order-of-magnitude performance leaps of ECR ion sources over the past decades result from improvements to the magnetic plasma confinement, increases in the microwave heating frequency, and techniques to stabilize the plasma at high densities. Parallel to the technical development of the ion sources themselves, significant effort has been directed into the development of their plasma diagnostic tools. We review the recent results of Electron Cyclotron Resonance Ion Source (ECRIS) plasma diagnostics highlighting a number of selected examples of plasma density, electron energy distribution, and ion confinement time measurements, obtained mostly with the second-generation sources operating at frequencies from 10 to 18 GHz. The development of minimum-B ECR ion sources based on the superposition of solenoid and sextupole fields has long relied on semiempirical scaling laws for the strength of the magnetic field with increasing plasma heating frequency. This approach is becoming increasingly difficult with the looming limits of superconducting technologies being able to satisfy the magnetic field requirements at frequencies approaching 60 GHz. Thus, we discuss alternative ECRIS concepts and proposed modifications to existing sources that are supported by the current understanding derived from the plasma diagnostics experiments.
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European effort on charge breeders is mainly dedicated to present and future Radioactive Ion Beam facilities. The main projects are High Intensity and Energy-ISOLDE at CERN, SPIRAL2 at GANIL, and EURISOL. Most of the experimental developments are funded by the European programs EURONS (European Nuclear Structure) and EURISOL (European Isotope Separation On-Line Radioactive Ion Beam Facility). Two ion source types (electron beam ion source and electron cyclotron resonance ion source) have been adapted to accept the injection and the capture of an ion beam, in order to increase its charge with the highest efficiency within the shortest time. Both charge breeders have advantages and disadvantages with regard to their use in a Radioactive Ion Beam facility. The most important parameters studied are acceptance (in emittance and intensity) of the charge breeder, efficiency, and charge breeding time of a specific n+ charge state, emittance of the extracted n+ beam. The charge breeder parameters are studied with different 1+ ion sources dedicated to 1+ radioactive ion beam production, and the tuning procedure of the charge breeder as a beam line section of a specific accelerator is established and measured too.
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A-PHOENIX is a new compact hybrid electron cyclotron resonance ion source using a large permanent magnet hexapole (1.92 T at the magnet surface) and high temperature superconducting Solenoids (3 T) to make min- B structure suitable for 28 GHz cw operation. The final assembly of the source was achieved at the end of June 2007. The first plasma of A-PHOENIX at 18 GHz was done on the 16th of August, 2007. The technological specificities of A-PHOENIX are presented. The large hexapole built is presented and experimental magnetic measurements show that it is nominal with respect to simulation. A fake plasma chamber prototype including thin iron inserts showed that the predicted radial magnetic confinement can be fulfilled up to 2.15 T at the plasma chamber wall. Scheduled planning of experiments until the end of 2008 is presented.
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The conceptual design of a fourth generation hybrid electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) ion source operated at 60 GHz is proposed. The axial magnetic mirror is generated with a set of three Nb3Sn coils, while the hexapole is made with room temperature (RT) copper coils. The motivations for such a hybrid development are to study further the ECR plasma physics and the intense multicharged ion beams' production and transport at a time when a superconducting (SC) hexapole appears unrealistic at 60 GHz. The RT hexapole coil designed is an evolution of the polyhelix technology developed at the French High Magnetic Field Facility. The axial magnetic field is generated by means of 3 Nb3Sn SC coils operated with a maximum current density of 350 A/mm2 and a maximum coil load line factor of 81%. The ECR plasma chamber resulting from the design features an inner radius of 94 mm and a length of 500 mm. The radial magnetic intensity is 4.1 T at the wall. Characteristic axial mirror peaks are 8 and 4.5 T, with 1.45 T minimum in between.
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The Selective Production of Exotic Species (SPES) project is an ISOL facility under construction at Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare-Laboratori Nationali di Legnaro (INFN-LNL). 1+ radioactive ions, produced and extracted from the target-ion-source system, will be charge bred to high charge states by an ECR charge breeder (SPES-CB): the project will adopt an upgraded version of the PHOENIX charge breeder, developed since about twenty years by the Laboratoire de Physique Subatomique et de Cosmologie (LPSC). The collaboration between LNL and LPSC started in 2010 with charge breeding experiments performed on the LPSC test bench and led, in June 2014, to the signature of a Research Collaboration Agreement for the delivery of a complete charge breeder and ancillaries, satisfying the SPES requirements. Important technological aspects were tackled during the construction phase, as, for example, beam purity issues, electrodes alignment, and vacuum sealing. This phase was completed in spring 2015, after which the qualification tests were carried out at LPSC on the 1+/q+ test stand. This paper describes the characteristics of the SPES-CB, with particular emphasis on the results obtained during the qualification tests: charge breeding of Ar, Xe, Rb, and Cs satisfied the SPES requirements for different intensities of the injected 1+ beam, showing very good performances, some of which are "best ever" for this device.
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The long-term operation of high charge state electron cyclotron resonance ion sources fed with high microwave power has caused damage to the plasma chamber wall in several laboratories. Porosity, or a small hole, can be progressively created in the chamber wall which can destroy the plasma chamber over a few year time scale. A burnout of the VENUS plasma chamber is investigated in which the hole formation in relation to the local hot electron power density is studied. First, the results of a simple model assuming that hot electrons are fully magnetized and strictly following magnetic field lines are presented. The model qualitatively reproduces the experimental traces left by the plasma on the wall. However, it is too crude to reproduce the localized electron power density for creating a hole in the chamber wall. Second, the results of a Monte Carlo simulation, following a population of scattering hot electrons, indicate a localized high power deposited to the chamber wall consistent with the hole formation process. Finally, a hypervapotron cooling scheme is proposed to mitigate the hole formation in electron cyclotron resonance plasma chamber wall.
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In the framework of the SPIRAL1 upgrade under progress at the GANIL lab, the charge breeder based on a LPSC Phoenix ECRIS, first tested at ISOLDE has been modified to benefit of the last enhancements of this device from the 1+/n+ community. The modifications mainly concern the 1 + optics, vacuum techniques, and the RF-buffer gas injection into the charge breeder. Prior to its installation in the midst of the low energy beam line of the SPIRAL1 facility, it has been decided to qualify its performances and several operation modes at the test bench of LPSC lab. This contribution shall present preliminary results of experiments conducted at LPSC concerning the 1 + to n+ conversion efficiencies for noble gases as well as for alkali elements and the corresponding transformation times.
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The SPIRAL2 injector, installed in its tunnel, is currently under commissioning at GANIL, Caen, France. The injector is composed of two low energy beam transport lines: one is dedicated to the light ion beam production, the other to the heavy ions. The first light ion beam, created by a 2.45 GHz electron cyclotron resonance ion source, has been successfully produced in December 2014. The first beam of the PHOENIX V2 18 GHz heavy ion source was analyzed on 10 July 2015. A status of the SPIRAL2 injector commissioning is given. An upgrade of the heavy ion source, named PHOENIX V3 aimed to replace the V2, is presented. The new version features a doubled plasma chamber volume and the high charge state beam intensity is expected to increase by a factor of 1.5 to 2 up to the mass â¼50. A status of its assembly is proposed.
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The present paper summarizes the results obtained from the past few years in the framework of the Enhanced Multi-Ionization of short-Lived Isotopes for Eurisol (EMILIE) project. The EMILIE project aims at improving the charge breeding techniques with both Electron Cyclotron Resonance Ion Sources (ECRIS) and Electron Beam Ion Sources (EBISs) for European Radioactive Ion Beam (RIB) facilities. Within EMILIE, an original technique for debunching the beam from EBIS charge breeders is being developed, for making an optimal use of the capabilities of CW post-accelerators of the future facilities. Such a debunching technique should eventually resolve duty cycle and time structure issues which presently complicate the data-acquisition of experiments. The results of the first tests of this technique are reported here. In comparison with charge breeding with an EBIS, the ECRIS technique had lower performance in efficiency and attainable charge state for metallic ion beams and also suffered from issues related to beam contamination. In recent years, improvements have been made which significantly reduce the differences between the two techniques, making ECRIS charge breeding more attractive especially for CW machines producing intense beams. Upgraded versions of the Phoenix charge breeder, originally developed by LPSC, will be used at SPES and GANIL/SPIRAL. These two charge breeders have benefited from studies undertaken within EMILIE, which are also briefly summarized here.
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The Foot and Mouth disease is considered a relatively mild disease in susceptible animals but it has a considerable economical impact in France and worldwide due to the huge economical losses that it generates. A system for the prevention of the disease was developed thirty years ago and has since been continuously improved. The current system for the prevention of FMD is based on training and information of all those involved in the surveillance of susceptible animals, over all the national territory, and on the control of imported animals and animal products. This system, developed in close collaboration with the European Commission and the other EU member states, allows control measures to be implemented almost instantaneously, if a case is suspected to avoid spreading of the disease.