Risk factors for the development or progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: Meta-analysis and systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of blindness in the working-age population, and it increases in severity during pregnancy. METHODS: Systematic review of literature from PubMed, Cochrane Library and Web of Science using keywords 'diabetic retinopathy' and 'pregnancy' and 'progression' from inception to 2021 was completed. Included studies were (1) peer-reviewed observational studies addressing progression/development of DR in pregnancy, (2) provided the number of diabetic patients that developed/progressed in DR during pregnancy, and (3) included differential data on variables between progression and non-progression groups. This was applied by two independent researchers and referred to a third researcher as necessary. Twenty-seven of the original 138 studies met this criterion. Data were pooled and analysed using fixed-effects in meta-analysis. RESULTS: From 27 studies, 2537 patients were included. Pre-eclampsia [Risk Ratio (RR) 2.62 (95% CI = 1.72, 4.00)] and hypertension treatment during pregnancy [RR 2.74 (95% CI = 1.72, 4.00)] were significantly associated with the development/progression of DR. HbA1c at baseline [MD 0.82 (95% CI = 0.59, 1.06)], duration of diabetes [mean difference (MD) 5.97 (95% CI = 5.38, 6.57)], and diastolic blood pressure at baseline [MD 3.29 (95% CI = 0.46, 6.12)] were all significantly higher in the progression group while only mean birth weight [MD -0.17 (95% CI = -0.31, -0.03)] was significantly higher in the non-progression group. CONCLUSIONS: This study fills a gap in the literature and provide physicians with more information on the risk factors associated with the progression of DR in pregnancy and how to counsel this vulnerable patient population appropriately.

Prevalence of Opioid Use and Intimate Partner Violence among Pregnant Women in South-Central Appalachia, USA.

Background: Recent research indicates that pregnant women in rural communities are at increased risk of experiencing IPV and comorbid illicit opioid use compared to urban-residing pregnant women. Few studies of the interactions among rurality, substance use, and victimization in pregnant women exist. The current study sought to examine the relationship between IPV and opioid use and the interaction effects of rurality in Appalachian pregnant women. Methods: A convenience sample of pregnant women who were enrolled in a smoking cessation research study was used for this analysis. Participants included 488 pregnant women from five prenatal clinics in South-Central Appalachia. Data were from self-reported assessments and semi-structured interviews on substance use and IPV conducted from first trimester of pregnancy through eight months postpartum. Results: Four hundred and ten participants reported experiencing any form of IPV in the past year. Logistic regression results indicated that physical IPV was associated with opioid use, but sexual and psychological IPV were not. The moderation model indicated direct effects between IPV and opioid use, but were not moderated by rurality. Conclusion: This study suggests a need to further understand the relationship between substance use, IPV, and rurality in pregnant women. The specific subtopic of opioid use by pregnant women living in rural communities, and its relationship to IPV victimization and adverse fetal and maternal health outcomes, continues to be an understudied, but critically important area. Limitations and future directions pertaining to IPV screenings and interventions for pregnant women are discussed.

Prevention and Management of Severe Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injuries (OASIs): a National Survey of Nurse- Midwives.

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: There are no data on midwives' knowledge and management of obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIs) in the USA. We performed a cross-sectional national survey characterizing OASI practice by certified nurse midwives (CNMs), hypothesizing that few midwives personally repair OASIs and that there are gaps in CNM OASI training/education. METHODS: We emailed a REDCap internet-based survey to 6909 American College of Nurse Midwives members (ACNM). We analyzed responses from active clinicians performing at least one delivery per month, asking about OASI risks, prevention, repair, and management. We summarized descriptive data then evaluated OASI knowledge by patient and provider characteristics. RESULTS: We received 1070 (15.5%) completed surveys, and 832 (77.8%) met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Participants were similar to ACNM membership. Respondents most frequently identified prior OASI (87%) and nutrition (71%) as antepartum OASI risk factors and, less frequently, nulliparity (36%) and race (22%). Identified intrapartum risks included forceps delivery (94%) and midline episiotomy (88%). When obstetric laceration is suspected, 13.6% of respondents perform a rectal examination routinely. Only 15% of participants personally perform OASI repair. Overall, participants matched 64% of evidence-based answers. OASI education/training courses were attended by 30% of respondents, and 44% knew of OASI protocols within their group/institution. Of all factors evaluated, the percent of evidence-based responses was only different for respondent education/CME and protocols. CONCLUSIONS: Quality initiatives regarding OASI prevention and management may improve care. Our data suggest OASI training for midwives may improve delivery care in the US. Further studies of other obstetric providers are needed.

Maternal Amino Acid Profiles to Distinguish Constitutionally Small versus Growth-Restricted Fetuses Defined by Doppler Ultrasound: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVE: Fetuses measuring below the 10th percentile for gestational age may be either constitutionally small for gestational age (SGA) or have pathologic fetal growth restriction (FGR). FGR is associated with adverse outcomes; however, identification of low-risk SGA cases is difficult. We performed a pilot study evaluating maternal markers of pathologic FGR, hypothesizing there are distinct amino acid signatures that might be used for diagnosis and development of new interventions. STUDY DESIGN: This was a cohort study of healthy women with sonographic fetal estimated fetal weight <5th percentile divided into two groups based upon umbilical artery (UmA) Doppler studies or uterine artery (UtA) Doppler studies. We collected maternal blood samples prior to delivery and used ion pair reverse phase liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to assess 44 amino acids. RESULTS: Among 14 women included, five had abnormal UmA, and three had abnormal UtA Doppler results. Those with abnormal UmA showed elevated ornithine. Those with abnormal UtA had lower dimethylglycine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, and 1-methylhistidine. CONCLUSION: We found several amino acids that might identify pregnancies affected by pathologic FGR. These findings support the feasibility of future larger studies to identify maternal metabolic approaches to accurately stratify risk for small fetuses.

High Altitude Continues to Reduce Birth Weights in Colorado.

Objectives Colorado's relatively high altitudes have been reported to lower birth weight but the most recent studies were conducted 20 years ago. Since then, the accuracy for assigning altitude of residence has been improved with the use of geocoding, and recommendations for pregnancy weight gain have changed. We therefore sought to determine whether currently, residence at high altitude (≥ 2500 m, 8250 ft) lowers birth weight in Colorado. Methods Birth certificate data for all live births (n = 670,017) to Colorado residents from 2007 to 2016 were obtained from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. Geocoded altitude of maternal residence for the current birth was assigned to each birth record. Linear and logistic regression models were used to examine the effects of altitude on birth weight or low birth weight (< 2500 g) while controlling for other factors affecting birth weight, including pregnancy weight gain. Results Compared to low altitude, infants born at high altitude weighed 118 g less and were more often low birth weight (8.8% vs. 11.7%, p < 0.05). After accounting for other factors influencing birth weight, high altitude reduced birth weight by 101 g and increased the risk of low birth weight by 27%. The only factors with larger impacts on birth weight were hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and cigarette use during pregnancy. Conclusions for Practice High altitude remains an important determinant of elevated LBW rates in Colorado, and likely contributes to Colorado's comparative resistance towards meeting the Healthy People 2010/2020 nationwide goal to reduce the low birth weight rate to 7.2% by 2020.

Is Growth Differentiation Factor 11 a Realistic Therapeutic for Aging-Dependent Muscle Defects?

This "Controversies in Cardiovascular Research" article evaluates the evidence for and against the hypothesis that the circulating blood level of growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11) decreases in old age and that restoring normal GDF11 levels in old animals rejuvenates their skeletal muscle and reverses pathological cardiac hypertrophy and cardiac dysfunction. Studies supporting the original GDF11 hypothesis in skeletal and cardiac muscle have not been validated by several independent groups. These new studies have either found no effects of restoring normal GDF11 levels on cardiac structure and function or have shown that increasing GDF11 or its closely related family member growth differentiation factor 8 actually impairs skeletal muscle repair in old animals. One possible explanation for what seems to be mutually exclusive findings is that the original reagent used to measure GDF11 levels also detected many other molecules so that age-dependent changes in GDF11 are still not well known. The more important issue is whether increasing blood [GDF11] repairs old skeletal muscle and reverses age-related cardiac pathologies. There are substantial new and existing data showing that GDF8/11 can exacerbate rather than rejuvenate skeletal muscle injury in old animals. There is also new evidence disputing the idea that there is pathological hypertrophy in old C57bl6 mice and that GDF11 therapy can reverse cardiac pathologies. Finally, high [GDF11] causes reductions in body and heart weight in both young and old animals, suggestive of a cachexia effect. Our conclusion is that elevating blood levels of GDF11 in the aged might cause more harm than good.

Burden of elective early-term births in rural Appalachia.

OBJECTIVES: Infants delivered at ≥ 37 weeks' gestation are considered full term, but research has demonstrated those born at 37 to 38 weeks (early term) have a higher risk for poor birth outcomes than deliveries at 39 to 41 weeks (full term). Despite this, many deliveries occur electively (scheduled, no medical indication) before 39 weeks. This study examined the risks of elective early-term delivery in a disadvantaged, rural sample and compared these results with national findings. METHODS: Data were available for 638 rural women, recruited prenatally from three counties in rural southern Appalachia, who delivered electively at ≥ 37 weeks. RESULTS: Compared with electively delivered full-term infants, those delivered electively at early term were 7.7 times more likely to be low birth weight, 4.4 times more likely to have a neonatal intensive care unit admission, and 2.5 times more likely to develop jaundice. Those living furthest from the hospital were most likely to deliver electively at <39 weeks. Although rates of elective deliveries <39 weeks were no higher than national rates, adjusted odds ratios (aOR) of associated admission to a neonatal intensive care unit doubled (aOR 4.4 vs aOR 2.2). CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrate that initiatives targeting early-term elective deliveries are needed in rural, disadvantaged regions.

Alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, and marijuana use: relative contributions to preterm delivery and fetal growth restriction.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy substance use is linked to low birth weight. However, less is known about relative contributions of various substances and whether effects are due to decreased gestational duration, restriction of fetal growth, or both. The study goal was to use causal modeling to evaluate the individual impact of alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, and marijuana on gestational duration and fetal growth. METHODS: Participants were 3164 urban black women recruited at entry to prenatal care and followed to delivery, with all gestational dating ultrasound supported. Pregnancy substance use was assessed via self-report (alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, and marijuana). RESULTS: Alcohol, cigarette, and cocaine use were all individually and negatively related to gestational age at delivery. However, only alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use predicted fetal growth, with effects for alcohol and cigarette greater and more discrepant for older women. Overall, heavy cigarette smoking had the greatest individual impact on birth weight (up to 431 g). Heavy levels of use of all 4 substances by older women decreased birth weight by 26% (806 g). CONCLUSIONS: For perhaps the first time, reduced birth weight is apportioned both by type of substance and mechanism of effect. The use of alcohol and/or cigarettes was clearly more harmful to fetal growth than cocaine use. Findings demonstrate the need for continued emphasis on intervention efforts to address legal and illicit pregnancy substance use.

Psychological intimate partner violence during pregnancy and birth outcomes: threat of violence versus other verbal and emotional abuse.

Although physical abuse during pregnancy has been linked to poor birth outcomes, the role of psychological abuse is less well understood. Associations between birth outcomes and types of psychological abuse during pregnancy (being threatened, screamed at, or insulted) were examined in 489 women with no history of physical abuse. Being threatened was significantly associated with adverse birth outcomes, with women reporting any instance during pregnancy twice as likely to deliver a low birth weight baby. These results remained after controlling for background factors. Finally, most of the variance between threats and birth weight was accounted for by mediating health behaviors (specifically prenatal care utilization and pregnancy weight gain), suggesting pathways for the negative effects of being threatened by an intimate partner during pregnancy.

Impact of in utero tobacco exposure on fetal growth: Amount of exposure and second trimester fetal growth measurements.

BACKGROUND: Research reveals small and inconsistent findings linking prenatal tobacco exposure and early fetal growth, but failure to consider confounding and amount of exposure many explain inconsistencies. GOAL: To examine whether fetal growth effects following exposure to tobacco are evident in the second trimester, specific to certain growth parameters, and dose dependent. METHODS: Participants were pregnant women (64 smokers, 100 controls) with no other drug use. Available data included background/medical information and ultrasound measurements coded as percentiles. RESULTS: Controlling for background differences, 10+ cig/day predicted a 10+ percentile point reduction in estimated fetal weight, femur length, head circumference, and biparietal diameter compared to non-exposed controls. Exposure to <10 cig/day predicted significant reduction in only biparietal diameter. Exposure was unrelated to abdominal circumference. CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrate utility of considering amount of exposure when examining/quantifying fetal growth effects, and suggest even reduction in early pregnancy smoking may positively benefit aspects of fetal development.

Sexual Coercion, Intimate Partner Violence, and Homicide: A Scoping Literature Review.

The specific relationship between sexual coercion, intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy, and intimate partner homicide (IPH) is poorly understood. Through a scoping literature review, we identified 101 studies on sexual coercion, IPV during pregnancy, and IPH and created a conceptual model suggesting unintended pregnancies may serve as both a risk factor for and a product of IPV that may escalate to IPH. We illustrate a healthcare systems intervention implication of this model in the context of the Colorado Family Planning Initiative (CFPI). Descriptive statistics suggest an inverse association between contraception access and IPH, which declined by 62% during the first 4 years of the CFPI. Interventions aimed at improving reproductive agency, including improving contraception access and reducing unintended pregnancy, may be a useful opportunity for clinician and health systems to contribute to reducing both lethal and nonlethal IPV.

Fetal Growth Following Electronic Cigarette Use in Pregnancy.

Electronic cigarette (e-cig) use in pregnancy is common, but potential effects on fetal development are largely unknown. This study's goal was to examine the association between e-cig exposure and fetal growth. Data were extracted from medical charts in this single-site retrospective study. The sample, excluding those with known tobacco, alcohol, illicit drug, opioid, and benzodiazepine use, contained women who used e-cigs throughout pregnancy and non-e-cig user controls. Fetal size measurements from second- and third-trimester ultrasounds and at birth were expressed as percentiles for gestational age. Following adjustment for confounding factors, in the second trimester, only femur length was significant, with an adjusted deficit of 11.5 percentile points for e-cig exposure compared to controls. By the third trimester, the femur length difference was 28.5 points, with the fetal weight difference also significant (17.2 points). At birth, all three size parameter differences between groups were significant. Significant size deficits were predicted by prenatal e-cig exposure, becoming larger and impacting more parameters with increasing gestation. While additional studies are warranted to confirm and expand upon these findings, this study adds to emerging data pointing to specific harms following e-cig exposure in pregnancy and suggests that e-cigs may not be a "safer" alternative to combustible cigarette smoking in pregnancy.

Birth outcomes following in utero co-exposure to tobacco and marijuana.

BACKGROUND: With recent changes in tobacco and marijuana use patterns, it becomes crucial to understand how the prenatal co-use of these substances impacts birth outcomes. The goal of this study was to examine the risk of adverse birth outcomes among infants born to women who used tobacco and marijuana concurrently throughout pregnancy compared to infants of women who used tobacco alone. METHODS: This study involved a retrospective chart review of pregnant women identified via self-report or biochemical testing who used tobacco products alone (N = 71) or tobacco and marijuana simultaneously (N = 127) at any point throughout pregnancy. Differences in birth outcomes between these groups, including APGAR (appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration) scores, respiratory distress, neonatal intensive care unit admission, intrauterine growth restriction, birth weight, birth length, head circumference, gestational age, and length of hospital stay, were analyzed using linear regression and odds ratio analysis. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in outcomes for infants of women who used tobacco and marijuana compared to infants of women who used tobacco alone during pregnancy. Rates of adverse birth outcomes were high among women who used tobacco compared to what would be expected in unexposed pregnancies. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco and marijuana co-use during pregnancy was not associated with an additional risk of adverse birth outcomes compared to tobacco use alone. Women should be educated on potential risks of marijuana, and especially, tobacco use during pregnancy. These results will inform clinical recommendations for pregnant women using tobacco and marijuana, aiming to decrease preventable adverse outcomes for patients and infants.

Alcohol use in pregnancy: insights in screening and intervention for the clinician.

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy remains a common occurrence and is associated with a multitude of adverse birth and long-term outcomes. Binge drinking in particular is shown to be particularly harmful to the developing fetus. Effects include full fetal alcohol syndrome, with characteristic facial dysmorphology, growth restriction, and developmental to delays. Exposed children may also have partial fetal alcohol syndrome, alcohol-related birth defects, and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorders. These effects are preventable, and efforts must begin with accurate identification of women who consume alcohol during pregnancy. Several screening tools have been developed and validated for use in prenatal care settings, and the most recently proposed brief and easy to use T-ACER3 has demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity in both identifying risk drinking during pregnancy and predicting long-term neurobehavioral outcomes in exposed children. Once identified, effective interventions are available for use with pregnant women consuming alcohol. Brief interventions, which can be delivered by a health professional and involve motivational interviewing, have been demonstrated to significantly reduce alcohol consumption during pregnancy. These approaches, recommended by American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologist (ACOG), help move patients toward increased readiness to positively change their drinking behavior. Ultimately, all prenatal care providers should routinely screen all patients for alcohol use using validated tools, and where appropriate, should offer intervention.

Relationship of vitamin D monitoring and status to bladder cancer survival in veterans.

OBJECTIVES: Veterans of the armed forces, like most population groups, have a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, which may be associated with adverse outcomes in several types of cancer. Ultraviolet irradiation is inversely linked with the risk of bladder cancer, presumably through enhanced vitamin D synthesis. We hypothesized that variations in vitamin D status and monitoring predict adverse outcomes in bladder cancer among veterans. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of data in the Veterans Integrated Service Network-9 (southeastern United States) was performed for patients diagnosed between October 1, 1999 and February 29, 2008. Age, tobacco exposure, body mass index, and latitude and seasonality of sampling were included as variables in addition to serum vitamin 25(OH)D levels. RESULTS: Monitoring of vitamin D and vitamin D levels and status were closely linked to survival in bladder cancer. Both the chances of survival and longevity improved with enhanced vitamin D status and monitoring. Veterans with bladder cancer had better outcomes if the initial vitamin D level was higher and had more monitoring of the vitamin. Initial vitamin D levels were more strongly related to outcomes than follow-up levels. The link between vitamin D and outcomes remained after adjusting for background variables such as age, body mass index, latitude, seasonality, and tobacco exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that adequate vitamin D levels early in the course of the disease provide the best opportunity to improve outcomes. Ensuring that veterans with bladder cancer have adequate vitamin D reserves with appropriate monitoring may play a role in improving outcomes in bladder cancer.

Prenatal marijuana exposure and visual perception in toddlers: Evidence of a sensory processing deficit.

Background: Research has identified a link between prenatal marijuana exposure and multiple outcomes in children, including cognitive development. Several studies have found specific differences in sensory processing and attention, with visual perception especially impacted in school age children. The current study explored whether this effect is evident at an earlier age, and thus our goal was to investigate the relationship between in-utero marijuana exposure and sensory processing capabilities in toddlers. We hypothesized that in-utero marijuana exposure throughout pregnancy would specifically predict visual sensory hyperactivity in children as young as 15 months of age. Methods: Participants were 225 15-month-old children whose mothers were recruited during pregnancy. Substance exposure was prospectively collected and biochemically verified, with marijuana coded as no exposure, 1st trimester exposure only, or exposure throughout pregnancy. The Infant Toddler Sensory Profile evaluated 5 domains of sensory processing (visual, auditory, tactile, vestibular, oral). Results: Prenatal marijuana exposure throughout pregnancy, but not when limited to the first trimester, predicted a two-fold increased likelihood of scoring in a range indicating high levels of seeking out and potentially over-attending to visual stimulation after controlling for potentially confounding factors including other prenatal exposures. Marijuana exposure was not significantly related to other processing domains. Conclusion: Results indicate that links previously identified between prenatal marijuana exposure and visual function and attention may already be evident at 15 months of age, and also suggest an impact related to continuous/later pregnancy exposure. Our findings, as well as those from previous studies, all suggest visual processing differences for exposed children, differences that may predict emerging issues with visual attention and habituation. As legalization of marijuana continues to increase, further research is clearly needed to examine specific teratologic effects associated with use during pregnancy.

The impact of timing of in utero marijuana exposure on fetal growth.

Objective: To examine whether timing of in utero marijuana exposure independently and negatively impacts fetal growth, and if these effects are global or specific to certain growth parameters. Study design: The two study groups were marijuana users (N = 109) and a randomly selected control group of biochemically verified non-users (n = 171). Study data were obtained via manual abstraction of electronic medical records. Results: After control for significant confounders, regression results indicated significant (p < .05) decrease in newborn weight following first trimester marijuana exposure only (-154 g) and following marijuana exposure throughout gestation (-185 g) compared to controls. There were also significant deficits in head circumference following marijuana exposure in the first and second trimester only (-.83 cm) and marijuana exposure throughout pregnancy (-.79 cm) compared to controls. Newborn length was not significantly predicted by marijuana exposure. Conclusions: Timing of marijuana exposure appears to play a key role in specific fetal growth deficits, with exposure throughout gestation most detrimental. However even first trimester exposure may result in decreased weight. Timing and amount of use could be confounded in this study as those who quit early in pregnancy may have been lighter users than those who continued throughout pregnancy. More research is clearly needed to better understand the role of amount and timing of in utero marijuana exposure in predicting different aspects of fetal growth, however, this study suggests that women should be encouraged to avoid marijuana use at any point in pregnancy.

In utero effects of opioids on fetal growth.

BACKGROUND: Studies indicate antenatal opioid use is associated with birth size deficits, as evidenced by reductions in birth weight and head circumference. However, there remains a limited understanding of how early this growth restriction occurs, and what specific parameters are affected. This novel study evaluated global and specific growth deficits associated with prenatal opioid exposure between 18-22 weeks' gestation as assessed during anatomy ultrasounds. METHODS: Pregnant women who completed an anatomy ultrasound were identified via electronic medical records from a large academic obstetric practice. The study group used opioids, with tobacco and/or marijuana use permitted (n = 41). The control group could have used tobacco and/or marijuana, but not opioids (n = 308). Neither group had alcohol or other drug exposure. Records were reviewed for medical history and ultrasound size parameters, coded as percentiles for gestational age. RESULTS: Demographics and medical histories were compared with several significant differences noted. After controlling for these differences, significant (p < 0.05) growth deficits were identified in opioid-exposed fetuses. Specifically, reductions >10 percentile points were observed in head circumference, biparietal diameter, and humerus length for opioid-exposed fetuses compared to controls. Additionally, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) was diagnosed five times more often. Femur length was significantly reduced in opioid-exposed fetuses prior to adjustment for confounding (p = .016), but this reduction was not significant (p = .072) after controlling for background differences. Estimated fetal weight (p = .274) and abdominal circumference (p = .633) were not significantly different between exposure groups. CONCLUSION: Fetal opioid exposure predicted various bone growth deficits during routine anatomy ultrasound, indicating the effects of opioid exposure on size deficits may be evident as early as 18-22 weeks' gestation. These findings may also suggest that in utero opioid exposure negatively impacts bone growth specifically rather than weight or fat/muscle mass. Additional studies with larger sample sizes may also reveal significantly reduced femur length, further supporting a negative impact on bone growth. Future studies evaluating bone health and immune function in children after antenatal opioid exposure may help clarify this specific effect of opioids on bone development.

Infant birth outcomes among substance using women: why quitting smoking during pregnancy is just as important as quitting illicit drug use.

Poor birth outcomes are associated with illicit drug use during pregnancy. While prenatal cigarette exposure has similar effects, cessation of illicit drug use during pregnancy is often prioritized over cessation of smoking. The study goal was to examine the impact of pregnancy tobacco use, relative to use of illicit drugs, on birth outcomes. Women were recruited at entry to prenatal care, with background and substance use information collected during pregnancy. Urine drug screens were performed during pregnancy, and the final sample (n = 265) was restricted to infants who also had biologic drug testing at delivery. Participants were classified by pregnancy drug use: no drugs/no cigarettes, no drugs/cigarette use, illicit drugs/no cigarettes, and illicit drugs/cigarette use. Groups differed significantly on infant birthweight, but not gestational age at delivery after control for confounders including background and medical factors. Among women who smoked, the adjusted mean birthweight gain was 163 g for those not using hard illicit drugs, while marijuana use had no effect on birth weight beyond the effect of smoking cigarettes. Women who used hard illicit drugs and did not smoke had an adjusted mean birthweight gain of 317 g over smokers. Finally, women who refrained from hard illicit drugs and smoking had a birthweight gain of 352 g. Among substance using pregnant women, smoking cessation may have a greater impact on birthweight than eliminating illicit drug use. Intervention efforts should stress that smoking cessation is at least as important to improving pregnancy outcomes as abstaining from illicit drug use.

Vitamin D testing patterns among six Veterans Medical Centers in the Southeastern United States: links with medical costs.

Veterans have a profound degree of vitamin D deficiency that may contribute to adverse health outcomes. Some veterans, especially African Americans at high risk of vitamin D deficiency, may not be receiving appropriate attention. We hypothesized variations in vitamin D status and monitoring across six different VAMCs and that these differences are associated with health care costs. A retrospective analysis of the medical data in the Veterans Integrated Service Network 9 (Southeastern United States) was performed, yielding a sample of 15,340 veterans. Monitoring of vitamin D, vitamin D levels, and medical costs and services in all categories varied greatly by site. Memphis tested vitamin D levels less often despite the increased minority presence and high levels of deficiency. Vitamin D deficiency and lack of monitoring predicted increased inpatient health care costs at all sites, but did not fully account for site-cost variations in controlled analyses. Vitamin D deficiency remains a significant problem among veterans in the Southeastern United States and is closely linked to increased health care costs. We recommend protocols that recognize site differences and facilitate testing and monitoring of vitamin D levels, especially in high-risk groups of veterans.